[285] AGUILERA EGEA, FRANCISCO. Born in Ciudad Real in 1857, Aguilera fought in the Carlist wars, in Cuba, and in Morocco, receiving all his promotions through war merits, and rising to lieutenant general at the age of fifty-five. He held several awards for valor. Until his break with the party leadership in 1919, Aguilera was the leading general in the garciaprietista wing of the Liberal party. As president of the Supreme Military Council in 1923, he emerged as a potential leader of a pronunciamiento; in 1926 he participated in the "Sanjuanada," a revolt against the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera. Aguilera died shortly after the proclamation of the Republic in 1931.
 

ALFAU MENDOZA, FELIPE. Born in 1848, Alfau won his promotions in the Carlist wars, in Cuba, and in Africa. At the same time, he stood out as an intellectual with interests in medicine and North African affairs. As Commander General of Ceuta in 1913, he engineered the bloodless capture of Tetuan, a coup that led to his appointment as first High Commissioner of Spanish Morocco in February 1913. Six months later, the Spanish occupation of Tetuan led to renewed guerrilla warfare, and Alfau was dismissed. Champion of the Juntas de Defensa in 1917, Alfau was passed to the reserve after passage of the reform law of 1918. In 1922 he was elected to the Senate as a Conservative.
 

AMADO Y REYGONDAUD DE VILLEBARDET, JULIO. Bom in 1873, attended the General Military Academy (AGM) and the Superior War College (ESG). As a Cavalry officer, he fought in the Cuban war of 1895-98, receiving a merit promotion to captain in 1896. In 1906 he acquired La Correspondencia Militar and in 1911 resigned his commission. Amado sat in the Cortes as an "independent monarchist" from 1910 to 1923.
 

[286] BERENGUER FUSTE, DÁMASO, Conde de Xauen. Berenguer, the son of a colonial officer, was born in Remedies, Cuba, on August 4, 1873. After attending the AGM, he joined the Cavalry and immediately saw action in Cuba, where he was the aide of General Luque. He served continuously in Morocco between 1909 and 1915, rising from lieutenant colonel to division general in nine years. In 1911 he organized the first units of native troops led by Spanish officers, the Regulars of Melilla. Through Luque, Berenguer affiliated with the Romanonist Liberals and served as Undersecretary of the War Ministry during the National Government of Antonio Maura. In November 1918 he became War Minister, a post he retained when Romanones assumed office a month later. In January 1919 he was appointed High Commissioner in Morocco, where he served until his indictment for negligence at Anual in July 1922. In 1924 the Supreme Military Council found him guilty as charged, but Primo de Rivera pardoned him, named him head of the Military Household in 1924, and in 1927 secured him the title of Conde de Xauen. After the resignation of the dictator in 1930, Berenguer became head of the government. Unable to steer the monarchy back into constitutional channels, he resigned in February 1931. After the proclamation of the Republic, he was tried by the "Responsibilities Tribunal" and remained in prison until the victory of the right in the elections of 1933.
 

BURGUETE Y LANA, RICARDO. One of three brothers who were officers in the Infantry, Burguete was born in 1871. A graduate of the AGM, he fought in Morocco, Cuba, and the Philippines in the 1890s, and again in Melilla in 1909, receiving the Laurel Wreath of Saint Ferdinand in 1895 and rising rapidly to brigadier by 1913. At the same time, he wrote several books on military theory, in which he insisted upon the superiority of moral factors to technological or "scientific" ones in achieving victory on the battlefield. Burguete also acquired some notoriety for his brutal repression of the Asturian miners' strike in 1917. After the indictment of General Berenguer in July 1922, he was appointed High Commissioner in Morocco, a post he retained until January 1923. As president of the Supreme Military Council in 1931, he was responsible for the light sentences given the Republican conspirators of the previous December. Shortly after the proclamation of the Republic, Burguete retired from the army. He died in 1938.
 

CABANELLAS Y FERRER, MIGUEL. Born in 1872, Cabanellas attended the AGM, then joined the Cavalry and served in Cuba. Most of his career was spent in Africa. Cabanellas supported the pronunciamiento of [287] Primo de Rivera in 1923, but he quickly fell out of favor with the dictator. A Mason and a liberal, Cabanellas joined the revolutionary committee formed to work for a republic in 1930. In 1931 he was appointed Commander-in-Chief in Morocco; in 1932 he replaced General Sanjurjo as head of the Civil Guard. In 1936 he somewhat reluctantly supported the military revolt. At his death in 1938, he was Inspector General of the Nationalist army.
 

CASTRO GIRONA, ALBERTO. Born in the Philippines in 1875, Castro Girona attended the AGM and the ESG, electing after graduation to return to the Infantry Corps as a diplomado. He served almost continuously in Morocco from 1913 until the final pacification of the zone in 1927, when he was promoted to lieutenant general. His africanismo made him the advocate of political pacification rather than of military conquest. In 1929 Castro Girona was briefly involved in the Sánchez Guerra conspiracy against the Dictatorship; his last-minute withdrawal lost him the favor of both the dictator and the opposition. In 1936 Castro Girona supported the military revolt.
 

CAVALCANTI DE ALBURQUERQUE Y PADIERNA, JOSÉ, Conde de Taxdirt and Marqués de Cavalcanti. The son of a Florentine émigré and his Spanish wife, Cavalcanti was born in Cuba in 1871. He attended the AGM and later the Cavalry Academy with Berenguer and Silvestre. Cavalcanti served in Cuba and Melilla and was a Conservative deputy from La Coruña in 1915. After the Anual disaster of 1921, he was appointed Commander General of Melilla, where he remained until his outspoken opposition to government policy occasioned his dismissal. In 1923, after his indictment by the Supreme Military Council for his rash conduct under fire, he was an active member of the "Quadrilateral" that organized the coup against the Liberal government of García Prieto. Married to a daughter of Emilia Pardo Bazán and a staunch monarchist, Cavalcanti was appointed head of the Military Household in 1923-24; in 1932 he participated in the revolt of General Sanjurjo against the Republic. Cavalcanti also joined the military rebellion of 1936, dying a year later in San Sebastian.
 

ECHAGÜE Y MÉNDEZ DE VIGO, RAMÓN, Conde de Serrallo. Born in 1852, the son of a general, Echagüe received all his promotions during the Carlist and colonial wars, rising to division general by 1895. One of the inner circle of Restoration generals, Echagüe was head of the Military Household and personal aide to the Queen Regent in 1897. In 1914 he was appointed life senator by the Conservatives. Echagüe served [288] as Minister of War in 1913 and at his death in November 1917 was president of the Supreme Military Council.
 

FERNÁNDEZ-SILVESTRE, MANUEL. The son of a retired army major, Silvestre was born in Santiago de Cuba in 1871. After attending the AGM, he joined the Cavalry and in 1895 went to Cuba, where his bravery earned him a severe wound and a promotion to major. A favorite of Alfonso XIII before going to Melilla in 1904, he was made gentleman of the chamber in 1909 on his return. In 1911 he became the first commanding officer in Larache. In spite of a record of insubordination while there, he was promoted to brigadier general in 1913. When further insubordination resulted in his dismissal in 1915, he was made head of the king's Military Household. In 1920 he returned to Africa, first to Ceuta, then at his friend Berenguer's request, to Melilla, where he embarked upon the military advance that led to his death at Anual in July 1921.
 

FRANCO BAHAMONDE, FRANCISCO. The son of a minor naval official, Franco was born December 4, 1892, in El Ferrol. A graduate of the Infantry Academy, he was sent to Africa in 1912, where, as a member of the elite Regulars, he was severely wounded. Franco was head of the Tercio from 1923 until his promotion to brigadier in 1928, when he was made director of the new General Military Academy. In 1931 the Republican government closed the AGM and a year later stripped Franco of the merit promotions he had earned in Morocco during the 1920s. In 1935, Franco was chief of the General Staff under José María Gil Robles; in June 1936 he joined the military conspiracy that rose against the Republic in July, quickly emerging as Commander-in-Chief and head of the new Nationalist state, which he ruled until his death in 1975.
 

LUQUE Y COCA, AGUSTÍN. Luque was born in Malaga in 1850, the son of an Infantryman. As a young captain, he rose with the Republican Manuel Ruíz Zorrilla in Cadiz. His Republican friends included Nicolás Estévanez and his own father-in-law, the Republican editor of El Cencerro. In 1897 Luque was implicated in a conspiracy to overthrow the Regency and establish a republic, but he seems to have been satisfied instead with appointment as Captain General of Seville. During the ¡Cu-cut! affair of November 1905, rumors again implicated Luque in a republican conspiracy, with the promise of a million pesetas and a Parisian exile should he fail. His appointment to the War Ministry in 1905 marked the beginning of his career as a member of the governing [289] elite. Minister of War with the Liberals four times between 1905 and 1917, he was appointed Director of the Civil Guard in 1917 and head of the Corps of Inválidos in 1918. Passed to the reserve in 1921, Luque died in 1935.
 

MARINA Y VEGA, JOSÉ. Born into a military family in Gerona in 1850, Marina's influential connections derived from his friendship with Ramón Echagüe and from his wife, a relative of Echagüe's and the daughter of a brigadier. Marina earned his promotions in Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and Cuba, but his professional preeminence was based on his African career. Marina was military governor of Melilla from 1905 until 1909; during the campaign of that year, he was promoted to lieutenant general. High Commissioner from 1913 to 1915, he was dismissed after an incident involving a royal favorite, Manuel Fernández-Silvestre. Briefly a spokesman for the Juntas de Defensa in 1917 and Minister of War in the National Government of 1918, Marina was passed to the reserve in 1919. He died in 1926.
 

MARTÍNEZ ANIDO, SEVERIANO. Born in El Ferrol in 1862, Martínez Anido fought in Melilla and the Philippines in the 1890s and again in Melilla in 1909, where his bravery caught the eye of General Marina. Displaying his usual fondness for military heroes, Alfonso XIII named him his aide. From then on, his rise was rapid. In 1919 Martínez Anido was made Military Governor of Barcelona; in November 1920 he became Civil Governor of the city. Dismissed in late 1922, Martínez Anido was sent to appease the Melilla garrison during the summer of 1923; that fall, he actively supported the coup of Primo de Rivera against the parliamentary regime. Shortly thereafter, he was appointed Director General of the Security Forces. In exile in France under the Republic, Martínez Anido served as Director of Public Order in the Nationalist zone until his death in 1938.
 

MILANS DEL BOSCH Y CARRIÓ, JOAQUÍN. A Cavalry officer born in 1854, Milans del Bosch participated in every campaign from the Carlist war to the colonial campaign in Morocco. By 1907 he was a brigadier and an intimate of the king. In 1918 he was appointed Captain General of Barcelona, where he served until his dismissal for insubordination in February 1920. Shortly thereafter, the king made him head of his Military Household, where he served until 1923.
 

MILLÁN-ASTRAY Y TERREROS, JOSÉ. Millán-Astray was born in La Coruña in 1879, the son of a civil servant who was later Chief of Police in [290] Barcelona and head of the Model Prison in Madrid. A graduate of the Infantry Academy and a diplomado, Millán-Astray saw service in the Philippines and in Africa. For his exploits as founder and head of the Tercio de Extranjeros, the king made him gentleman of the chamber in 1921; in 1922 he was forced to resign after a public quarrel with the Juntas. Reinstated under Primo de Rivera and promoted to colonel, he was once again made head of the Tercio after Franco's promotion to brigadier in 1928. During his many years in Morocco, he lost an arm and an eye, thus earning the nickname, "El glorioso mutilado." Millán-Astray, who joined the Nationalists during the civil war, died in 1954.
 

MOLA VIDAL, EMILIO. Born in Plantas, Cuba, in 1887, Mola was a fourth-generation military officer. After graduating from the Infantry Academy in 1904, Mola served in Africa from 1909 to 1925, where he served with distinction in the Regulars. Appointed Director General of the Security Forces by General Berenguer in 1930, Mola was briefly imprisoned and expelled from the army after the proclamation of the Republic in 1931. The right amnestied him and restored him to a command in 1934. Mola was among the chief organizers of the military revolt of 1936. He died in a plane crash in 1937.
 

PICASSO Y GONZÁLEZ, JUAN. Born in 1857, Picasso initially acquired notoriety as the first Staff officer to break the closed scale in his corps by accepting the Laurel Wreath of Saint Ferdinand and a merit promotion to major during the Melilla campaign of 1893. Subsequently, his rise through the ranks was slow; although he was sixteen years older than Berenguer, he was not promoted to division general until four years after him, in 1921. One of the few Protestants in the Spanish officer corps, Picasso was the uncle of Pablo Ruíz Picasso.
 

PRIMO DE RIVERA Y ORBANEJA, MIGUEL, second Marqués de Estella. Son of a wealthy retired colonel with landholdings near Jerez de la Frontera, Primo de Rivera was born on January 8, 1870. After four years (1883-87) at the AGM, he entered the Infantry and embarked on a meteoric career that he owed to the prestige and influence of his uncle, the first Marqués de Estella. In Melilla in 1893 he was awarded the Laurel Wreath for bravery and promoted to captain; by 1897 he had received two more promotions while serving as an aide to Martínez Campos and his uncle in Cuba and the Philippines. By 1911, after service in the Kert campaign, Primo was a brigadier, the first graduate of the AGM to rise to that rank. After another brief tour of Morocco in 1913 (when he was promoted to division general), he remained in the [291] peninsula, primarily in Madrid. At his uncle's death in May 1921, he inherited the title of Marqués de Estella. Emerging as the leader of a military pronunciamiento against the parliamentary regime in 1923, Primo ruled Spain as dictator until loss of support in the army forced him to resign in January 1930. He died in exile in Paris a few weeks later.
 

PRIMO DE RIVERA Y SOBREMONTE, FERNANDO, first Marqués de Estella. Born in Seville in 1831, the Marqués de Estella had a meteoric career, reaching field marshal rank at age forty-one in 1872. In 1875 he was head of the first Military Household; in 1876 he was given his title. A life senator in 1877, he was governor of the Philippines from 1880 to 1883. War Minister under Maura in 1907 and again with Dato in 1917, the Marqués de Estella was also president of the Supreme Military Council from October 1917 until his death in 1921.
 

RIQUELME LÓPEZ-BAGO, JOSÉ. Born in 1880, Riquelme trained at the Infantry Academy. He spent nearly his entire career in Melilla, where he was an officer in the Native Police. Like his fellow africanista Castro Girona, Riquelme favored political rather than military tactics. He also sympathized with the Juntas, perhaps because his political liberalism inclined him to be critical of the political and military turno. Riquelme participated in the Sanjuanada revolt against the Dictatorship in 1926 and supported the Republic in 1931. The Republicans rewarded him by promoting him to division general. A loyal Republican, after the civil war Riquelme helped reorganize the Agrupación Militar Republicana, with the aim of overthrowing the Franco regime by force.
 

SANJURJO SACANELL, JOSÉ, Marqués del Rif. Sanjurjo was born into a Carlist family in Pamplona on March 28, 1872. After attending the AGM from 1890 to 1893, he entered the Infantry, serving first in Cuba and later in Melilla, where he was among the first to volunteer for the Regulars organized by Berenguer. In Africa he rose rapidly, receiving three merit promotions and a Laurel Wreath between 1909 and 1916. In the peninsula from 1917 to 1919, he was active in the Infantry junta during the ESG affair. His return to Africa and promotion to brigadier in 1920 subsequently diluted his enthusiasm for the Juntas. An active supporter of Primo de Rivera in 1923, Sanjurjo was a leading figure in the successful conquest of Morocco after 1925, earning his title in 1927. As head of the Civil Guard in 1931, Sanjurjo did not oppose the proclamation of the Republic. Nevertheless, in 1932 he led an unsuccessful revolt against the Azaña government. Sanjurjo died in a plane crash [292] in July 1936 as he prepared to join the military revolt he had helped to plan.
 

VARELA IGLESIAS, JOSÉ. The son of a noncommissioned naval officer, Varela was born in the province of Cadiz in 1891. Varela trained in the Naval Academy before entering the Infantry Academy in 1909. From 1916 on, he served in the Regulars of Larache, receiving three merit promotions and two Laurel Wreaths in thirteen years. An uncompromising monarchist, Varela rose with General Sanjurjo against the Republic in 1932 and was a prominent member of the military conspiracy of 1935-36. Varela was a member of Franco's cabinet until 1943, when he was dismissed for his anti-Falangist activities.
 

WEYLER Y NICOLAU, VALERIANO, Marqués de Tenerife and Duque de Rubí. The son of a military doctor, Weyler was born in Palma de Mallorca in 1838. A Staff officer, he made his career in Santo Domingo and Cuba in the 1860s and in the Carlist war of the 1870s. In 1878, a lieutenant general at thirty-nine years of age, he was sent to the Canary Islands, where his policies earned him the respect of the population and his first title in 1887. A member of the elite political hierarchy, Weyler was named a life senator by the Liberals in 1895. The same year he replaced Martínez Campos as Captain General in Cuba, where his harsh tactics were effective in turning the tide against the Cuban rebels until he was recalled in an abortive effort to conciliate popular opinion in the United States. Minister of War three times (1901, 1905, and 1906), Weyler also served as chief of the General Staff from 1916 to 1921 and again from 1923 to 1925. He was awarded his second title in 1920 after he agreed to replace Milans del Bosch as Captain General of Barcelona. Weyler participated in the Sanjuanada revolt against the Dictatorship in 1926, when he was eighty-nine years of age. He died in 1930.