[164] Religious life is in some ways the most complex and the most delicate area which the historian ever has to tackle. Nevertheless, such an effort must be made, if it is ever to be possible to establish whether the term 'Christian Córdoba' was any more than a means of chronological definition. This, however, is not the full extent of the problem. Córdoba and its region were obviously included in the society of three religions which existed in Spain in the Middle Ages, so that apart from institutional and personal Christianity, the question arises of the character and role of Judaism and Islam in local life. While much of the evidence is fragmentary and much work remains to be done, it is nonetheless possible to say a great deal about some of the main features of the city's religious life and even about the attitudes and beliefs of its citizens.
 

There can be no doubt that institutional religion loomed large in Córdoba's life. The Church, understood theologically as Christ's physical presence on earth, naturally included all baptised Christians. Nonetheless, it had long been established, largely as a result of the contempt for the 'world' in its material manifestations which had become a part of Christianity almost from the start, that a life devoted to God would ideally consist of worship and prayer rather than work in the home or outside it. Thus arose the distinction between 'full-' and 'part-time' Christians, later to be described as 'clergy' and 'laity'. The value of the clergy to the rest of society was recognised in the theory of the three estates or orders, so that, just as the nobles provided military protection for their fellow-Christians, the full-time priests, monks and nuns formed the front line against the spiritual enemies of Man. That these ideas were more than abstract notions or clichés was indicated in the clearest possible way by the Church's position as a landowner and appropriator of much of the produce of lay society.

[165] There is no possibility of establishing how many of Córdoba's citizens were in holy orders in this period. The incidental testimony of the 1502 list of grain-holdings suggests the size of the Cathedral staff, but does not detail the bishop's household. Other religious institutions are known, but many of them in little more than name. In 1502, the clergy of the Cathedral, leaving aside any who may have served the surrounding parish of St Mary, consisted of the dean, the maestrescuela, or chancellor, the prior, the archdeacon of Pedroche, the precentor (chantre), the treasurer, the apostolic protonotary, the steward (mayordomo) and thirty-eight major or minor canons. One was absent and four benefices were vacant. In addition, thirteen chaplains served the various chantries in the Cathedral, six in the chapel founded by the former precentor, Fernán Ruiz de Aguayo, three in the chapel of the precentor Hoces, three in the chapel of the archdeacon of Badajoz and one in the chapel of St Peter. ⁽¹⁾ Although sizable by modern standards, this establishment would not have seemed large at the time. Seville Cathedral had eighty canons in the early sixteenth century. ⁽²⁾ Four chantries, in the case of Córdoba, seem few, when this type of devotion was apparently so popular in much of western Europe. The size of the staffs of secular clergy which served the fourteen parish churches of Córdoba, together with the parish of St Mary, is not known.

When Córdoba was reconquered, Ferdinand III founded four religious houses for men and his choice of orders reflected contemporary developments in the Church. The result is that there were no monastic houses on the Benedictine model in the Córdoba area and the Cluniac and Cistercian orders, which had been so active in earlier stages of the Reconquest, never established themselves to any significant extent in Andalusia. Instead, the newly settled city became a field of operation for the Augustinian canons and the more recently formed orders of friars. Ferdinand established the Dominicans in the house of St Paul, the Franciscans in St Peter 'el Real', the Trinitarians in La Trinidad and the Mercedarians in La Merced. The Augustinians were set up, later in the thirteenth century, in the house of St Augustine. The Cistercian house of the Holy Martyrs Aciscius and Victoria was founded by Father Alfonso Ruiz in 1332, while, for women, a house of Clares, dedicated to St Clare, had been established in 1264 and the convents of St Cross and St Inés were added in the fifteenth century. St Martha, a house of Jeronymite nuns, was founded in 1464 and there were other convents bearing the names of the Incarnation and 'Las Dueñas'. The late medieval movement for reform of the religious life led, in the Córdoba [166] area, to the foundation of three Franciscan houses, St Francis 'del Monte' within the boundaries of Adamuz, in 1394, St Francis 'de la Arruzafa', in the Sierra of Córdoba, in 1414, and, in 1452, Mother of God, outside the walls of Córdoba itself, adjoining the parish of St Marina. The austere Dominican house of St Dominic 'de Scala Coeli' was founded in or around 1423, while the more splendid Jeronymiite foundation of St Jerome 'de Valparaíso' began in 1408. In addition to these friaries, the Sierra of Córdoba also contained a number of sanctuaries and hermitages, especially around La Arruzafa and La Albaida. ⁽³⁾

With research in its present state, it is difficult to say a great deal about the economic presence of the institutional Church in the Córdoba area. However, it is clear that in terms of jurisdictional lordships, the Church received very little after the Reconquest and by the fifteenth century had lost even this. In western Andalusia as a whole, ecclesiastical lordships had included 5.7 per cent of the land at the end of the thirteenth century, but by the early sixteenth century this had been reduced to 3.8 per cent. Córdoba Cathedral held the lordship of Lucena for a time, apparently without jurisdiction, but under the Catholic Monarchs its only possession was the castle of Toledillo, which was attached to the bishop's household. In 1497, the Crown tried to reverse the sale of the castle to the count of Palma, but apparently without success. ⁽⁴⁾ In terms of taxes and rents, on the other hand, the Church's presence was very much felt throughout the region.

It is not possible to compose anything approaching a complete list of properties held by the churches and religious houses of Córdoba, but there are strong indications of the Church's role as a landlord. The Cathedral chapter and the bishop's household, which were separate entities for this purpose, were important landlords in city and countryside. The 1502 survey refers to five arable farms (cortijos) and a halfshare of some grain-mills in Castro del Río and one farm each in Adamuz and Bujalance, which were held by the Cathedral chapter. More comprehensive information about the possessions of the bishop's household is to be found in a document which was drawn up after the death of bishop Juan Daza in 1510. Apart from details of the tithes collected for the bishop, which have already been used for the study of agricultural production, the document also gives an account of the rents payable from the properties attached to the mesa obispal. In 1510, the sum of 227,702 mrs was paid in cash as rent, equivalent to 12.33 per cent of the household's rents for that year. The bulk of the bishop's [167] properties were either in Córdoba itself or else in the valley of the Guadalquivir, at Adamuz, Montoro, Trassierra (in the mountains behind Córdoba), Posadas, Hornachuelos and Palma del Río. Outside the valley, the bishop held property at Fuente Obejuna, in the Sierra, and Santaella and Castro del Rio in the Campiña. The bishop owned many houses, the majority of them in Córdoba itself, where the highest rents were obtained. His most valuable land was enclosed in dehesas, many of them on the left bank of the river opposite Córdoba. While the urban properties were generally let for the tenants' lifetime, the rural lands appear to have been rented out on one-year contracts, providing ample opportunity for rents to rise with inflation. A single document cannot, of course, indicate whether such adjustments were in fact made. Nonetheless, the available evidence is sufficient to show that the bishop was able to live as a wealthy, absentee landlord, exactly like his secular equivalents. The only property directly exploited by his officials was the fruit- and vegetable-garden alongside the bishop's palace. ⁽⁵⁾

At least as interesting as the collection of rents by the officials of the bishop's household was the effect of the produce accumulated in kind on the provisions markets of the city. Either in the form of tithes or as rent for property, the bishop received far more grain than he or his household could possibly consume. Some of the surplus was distributed in the form of salaries for his officials, such as his personal chaplains and sacristans and the gardener who looked after his fruit and vegetables. The chaplains and sacristans seem to have received up to a third of their salary in the form of grain. Most of the bishop's grain, however, was sold, either in Córdoba itself or in the places in the tierra where it was collected. Surviving evidence for such sales is to be found in a book covering the period from early January to the end of May 1510. ⁽⁶⁾

It is impossible to find similar information about the possessions of the religious houses of Córdoba, though the available fragments indicate, not surprisingly, that they, like the bishop and the Cathedral chapter, followed the secular pattern of land-holding. A study of the religious life of Córdoba's Christians in this period is, however, greatly assisted by an examination of the relationship between laymen and monastic houses, in terms of new foundations, donations and burial customs.

The growth of seignorial power in the secular world in the later Middle Ages was matched in the formation of new religious houses. Although the first friaries set up in reconquered Córdoba were the result of royal initiative, those founded afterwards were all examples of noble patronage. The hermitage of St Joseph, which later became a [168] hospital, was founded by Doña Mayor Martínez, a member of the family of the Fernández de Córdoba, lords of Belmonte, in 1385. The convent of Las Dueñas had been set up by the Venegas of Luque in 1370. Among fifteenth-century foundations, the convent of Clares dedicated to St Cross was set up as a daughter house of St Clare itself in 1464 by Pedro de los Ríos, lord of El Morillo and veinticuatro of Córdoba. The nunnery of the Incarnation, whose first abbess came from Las Dueñas, was founded by the will of a precentor of the Cathedral, Antón Ruiz de Morales, who was also a member of a local noble family. The Jeronymite convent of St Martha received a bull from Paul II in 1464, having been founded by Doña Catalina López de Morales, widow of Juan Pérez de Cárdenas. Some of its first nuns were associates of the bishop, Fernando González Deza, and the alcaide de los donceles. The Franciscan house known as Mother of God was founded by Ruy Martínez de Pineda, a tertiary of the order. Outside Córdoba, St Francis 'del Monte' was set up by Martín Fernández de Andújar, and St Francis 'de la Arruzafa' by Fernando de Rueda. The family of the alcaide de los donceles was associated with Brother Vasco's foundation of St Jerome 'de Valparaíso', so that only St Dominic 'de Scala Coei' seems to have been established by an initiative which came entirely from within the order concerned. ⁽⁷⁾

It is significant that not only did Córdoba's nobility show continued enthusiasm for the friars and their equivalent orders of nuns in the late fifteenth century, but it also channelled quite considerable resources into charitable foundations. As elsewhere in medieval Europe, care for the sick and for the poor were often supplied by the same institutions. There were eighteen hospitals in late medieval Córdoba for which records of some kind survive and this figure is very probably not complete. Of the foundations for which the date of origin is known, the earliest is the Hospital of St Lazarus, which was set up under a privilege of Sancho IV in 1290, to help the poor and sick. Otherwise, most of the surviving information concerns fifteenth-century foundations. The Hospital of the Blood of Christ, for example, was founded in 1430 in the parish of St Andrew to care for the insane, by Luis de Luna, veinticuatro of Córdoba, while in 1441, Lope Gutiérrez de los Ríos, maestrescuela of the Cathedral, set up the Hospital of St Mary of the Orphans. In addition to caring for those mentioned in the title, it also provided a home for some of the less fortunate members of the De los Ríos family. ⁽⁸⁾

Several hospitals were begun in Córdoba during the reign of the [169] Catholic Monarchs. The Hospital of St Andrew, for instance, had its Statutes approved by bishop Iñigo Manrique in 1483, while the tiny, four-bed Hospital of the Holy Cross, which cared for abandoned children, came into the hands of the cofradía of St Nuflo in 1496. It is rare to find details of the size of these hospitals, though it is probable that they were all fairly small. ⁽⁹⁾ Two foundations of this period may, however, be described in greater detail. The first is the hospital for thirty-three poor women, which was founded by a document of 29 October 1496, in the former dwelling, in the parish of St Mary, of Doña María de Sotomayor, the daughter of Luis Méndez de Sotomayor, lord of El Carpio and Morente. The hospital was set up by her executors, her sister Doña Beatriz, who was married to Don Diego López de Haro, the current lord of El Carpio, and Fray Francisco de Sotomayor, formerly guardian of the friary of St Francis, though which house of that name is not specified. Under the terms of Doña Maria's will, dated 24 August 1496, the new hospital was to be administered jointly by her executors, the Cathedral chapter and the successive heirs of her mayorazgo. The foundation was initially endowed with three sets of houses in the parish of St Mary, adjoining the hospital itself, two olive- and wine-producing properties, one of them at Trassierra, and various tracts of arable land in the Campiña, some near Córdoba itself and some in the family's lordships of El Carpio and Morente or the adjoining territories of Córdoba council at Bujalance and the military order of Calatrava at Vilafranca. ⁽¹⁰⁾

Consideration of the other hospital founded in this period about which more is known inevitably raises the question of religious brotherhoods and their role in the life of the city. On 14 February 1493, Alonso de Fuentes, provisor and vicar-general for the bishop of Córdoba, Don Iñigo Manrique, granted a licence to the chief brother (hermano mayor) and members (cofrades) of the Brotherhood of Charity (Cofradía de la Caridad) to establish a hospital in the houses which the cofradía had rebuilt, in the parish of St Nicholas 'del Ajarquía', adjoining the Plaza del Potro, where mass might be celebrated and a bell-tower built, under the jurisdiction of the bishop. ⁽¹¹⁾ The brotherhood in question was the most influential of the large number which existed in Córdoba at the time. Teodomiro Ramírez, though unfortunately not stating his sources, mentions about a dozen cofradías of medieval origin, all of them religions rather than occupational in character. It is important to note, though, that the religious and economic functions were often combined in these organisations and [170] that, even if the guild structure was fairly weak, this is not to say that lay brotherhoods were not a vital aspect of the Christianity of the period. In view of the impossibility of producing a full study of the composition and activities of Córdoba's cofradías to match that which exists for Cáceres, the example of the Caridad must stand for the rest. ⁽¹²⁾

The brotherhood appears to have undertaken a wide range of duties concerned with the marginal groups in Córdoba's society. There is little evidence concerning its own social composition, but a document of 1481 suggests that the hermano mayor might come from the ranks of the caballeros de premia or peones, although he was exempt, ex officio, from military service. An indication of the cofradía's work may be found in a royal provision of 1483, in which the king instructed the local magistrates not to tamper with the alms which the brothers received for the purposes of providing burials for convicts without financial means and for outsiders who died in Córdoba, and of finding husbands for orphan girls of an honest life. In 1503, Juan Pérez, hermano mayor de la Caridad, who is described in the document as a merchant (mercader), presented to Córdoba council a royal document which instructed its treasurer, Alonso de Morales, to hand over to the steward of the brotherhood a sum of money which the Crown had granted from its income from the sale of confiscated goods, for the relief of the prisoners in the city gaol. The sum in question, which was 50,000 mrs, was to be paid by the brotherhood for the maintenance of the prisoners at the rate of one real (thirty-five maravedís) per day. It is not known if other cofradías engaged in similar activities, in addition to supporting the cult of saints and running hospitals, but this testimony suggests that the Caridad enjoyed considerable prestige both within and outside Córdoba. ⁽¹³⁾

Much has been made, in other parts of Europe, of individual donations to Christian activity as an indication of the existence, or the lack, of religious fervour among the laity. In the case of Córdoba, it is not possible to make a complete survey of such donations, but certain examples, taken from the surviving notarial documents, may serve to illustrate the religious predilections of at least a few of the leading members of local society. The preference for the work of the friars and their female equivalents, which has already been noted in the case of new foundations, also applies to donations made in wills. Some donors supported the older churches, for example Egas Venegas gave 2,000 mrs in his will, in 1472, to the parish church of St Peter, while Pedro de Aguayo gave some houses in St Nicholas 'del Ajarquía' to the [171] Cathedral in 1483. Pedro de Hoces, jurado of St Michael, gave a vineyard to a local convent and a few directly charitable donations were made. In 1483, Inés González de Mesa, widow of the veinticuatro Rodrigo de Aguayo, left money to provide shirt and shoes for four poor inhabitants of the parish of St Mary, 'for the love of God', while Egas Venegas left 2000 mrs to the convent of St Mary 'de las Dueñas' to pay for clothing for the poor. ⁽¹⁴⁾ The religious benefactions of the leaders of Cordoban society are indicated by the wills of Doña Catalina Pacheco, widow of Don Alonso de Aguilar, and Martín Alonso de Montemayor, veinticuatro of Córdoba.

In her codicil of 21 September 1503, which was further added to on 3 November 1503, Doña Catalina increased the donations which she had made in her will to religious and charitable activities. The main project for which Doña Catalina wished to provide funds was the hospital which was being set up in the house of the veinticuatro Antón Cabrera, in the parish of St Nicholas 'de la Villa'. In the codicil, a gift of 20,000 mrs per annum from the rents of Córdoba was increased to 60,000. Doña Catalina also asked her sons, the marquis of Priego and Don Francisco Pacheco, to buy linen from her estate for the twenty beds which she had supplied to this hospital. She asked her executors to pay for a chapel in the hospital, to supplement the 250,000 mrs which Antón Cabrera himself had given to the project. The 1503 codicil refers to a wide range of other religious benefactions. Doña Catalina used 50,000 mrs of perpetual juros which she held in the rents of Córdoba to endow three chaplaincies. The pope was to be petitioned to ensure that the three chaplains were Jeronymites and they were intended to serve local convents. Other gifts mentioned in the codicil include 10,000 mrs to the abbess of St Clare, for a female slave to serve the convent, two chalices for churches in Córdoba and Ubeda, devotional objects such as jewels and an alabaster image of Our Lady to her daughter, Doña Elvira de Herrera, a Clare in the convent of St Inés, Ecija, and other devotional objects to her other daughter, María, who was also a nun. The two daughters were also to have the pick of her library, but the titles are not given. Doña Catalina gave 15,000 mrs and 100 fanegas of wheat, together with some cloth, to the religious women (beatas) of El Canuelo, in Córdoba, and 15,000 mrs and clothing to the nuns of St Catherine of Siena, Córdoba. She also gave cash or religious objects to three other local convents. ⁽¹⁵⁾

Martín Alonso de Montemayor's will is an example of a wealthy layman's attitude to Christian giving in the face of death. As usual, it [172] concentrates initially on measures to secure the salvation of Martin's own soul and those of his relatives. He endowed a chaplaincy in the family chapel of St Peter, in the Cathedral, where he was to be buried. The money was to come from juros in the butcheries of Córdoba and houses in the city. Martín also paid for the saying of masses for the soul of his brother, Fernán Pérez de Montemayor. He agreed to pay 15,000 mrs, from his late wife's goods, to the convent of St Clare in Alcaudete, which their daughter Ana had joined before she was twelve. Martín's will does not contain the profusion of religious gifts, many of them indicating the personal interest of the donor in the establishments concerned, which is to be found in Doña Catalina's codicil. Nonetheless, some generalisations may be risked on the basis of these wills. ⁽¹⁶⁾

As might be expected, all the wills contain some kind of provision for burial and the saying of masses for the souls of the testator and, generally, his close relatives. The choice of church for burial seems, on the basis of a sample of wills of leading citizens, to have fallen more or less equally between local parish churches, including the Cathedral, where the important noble families normally had vaults or private chapels, and the friaries and convents which other evidence shows to have been so fashionable. ⁽¹⁷⁾ Another striking feature of religious donations, on this evidence, is their small size, even in the comparatively grandiose cases of founders of hospitals. The Córdoba nobility does not seem to have wished to divert many of its financial resources to securing personal salvation. Noble wealth might be measured in hundreds of thousands, or even millions, of maravedís, but gifts to religious institutions normally amounted only to hundreds or, at best, a thousand or two. The only exceptions were sums given to support friaries or convents where relatives of the donor were members. Here, such gifts might be construed as parallel to the normal provision made for the children of the nobility in the secular world.

While it may be argued that the allocation of goods in wills to religious causes is a strong indication of the giver's feelings about Christianity, such material can only provide part of the answer to a question of this kind. What has been revealed so far about Christian institutions and the support which they received from Córdoba's citizens seems to be in line with what is known about other areas of Castile and of the rest of western Europe in the period. As Sánchez Herrero found, for example, in the kingdom of León, the Church provided a complex and expensive framework in which the individual Christian might express his religious faith. ⁽¹⁸⁾ This visible structure is [173] obvious in the Cathedral and its staff, the bishop and his household, the fourteen parish churches, the many and various friaries, convents, shrines and hermitages, the religious confraternities and their charitable enterprises. The place of Catholic conformity in the public life of the city was shown equally clearly in the boom in fish sales in Lent and the official attendance of the city council at such functions as the Corpus Christi procession and the Lenten sermons. Such rites are certainly not to be dismissed and the social effects of religious conformity will be further considered shortly. Nonetheless no study of Christianity in Córdoba in the late Middle Ages can avoid the delicate subject of personal belief.

Often, historians have in practice accepted the medieval Church's assumption that the ideal Christian is a 'professional', or in other words a clerk in holy orders. Thus the quality of the Church tends to be judged by its clergy. In the case of Córdoba, however, it is not possible to say a great deal about the character of the clergy. Clearly, institutions such as the Cathedral would defend their rights, or believed rights, in the same way as the city council or any other secular body. The municipal actas would suggest that one of the most contentious issues in Córdoba was not the conquest of Granada, or even the antics of the houses of Aguilar and Baena, but whether the Cathedral clergy should pay customs duties on the wine which they imported, in theory for their own consumption, but in practice, according to the council, for resale. The problem is that it is extremely difficult to tell whether this rather uninspiring behaviour was the sum total of the capabilities of Córdoba's clergy or whether a Christian life based on less mercenary values flourished among them.

That the conduct of individual Christians fell far short of the standards set by Jesus' teaching is a proposition which would surely have been accepted by virtually everyone in the late medieval Church. The desire for reform was expressed in both institutional and individual terms, though the result was often the exclusion of persons and movements from the Church as heretical. In the case of Castile, much work has been done in recent years on the attempts which were made in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries to raise the standards of the clergy and to encourage, or force, a return by religious communities to the primitive standards of their orders. In this tendency, the Catholic Monarchs had an important role and their efforts were channelled particularly into improving the quality of the bishops and increasing the zeal of the regular clergy. ⁽¹⁹⁾

[174] Very little is known about the nature of life in the religious communities of Córdoba in this period. The earliest evidence for the existence of the reform movement in the area is the adherence of St Francis 'del Monte' to the Franciscan Observance in 1415. In or around 1423, the friary of St Dominic 'de Scala Coeli' was founded by Blessed Alvaro of Córdoba, a local Dominican holy man who wanted the new house to return to the early simplicity of the order. Although it did not formally join the Dominican Observant Congregation until 1489, St Dominic 'de Scala Coeli' functioned as a study-house from I 434 at the latest, and its members exercised an urban apostolate from a building near the Mercedarian friary in Córdoba itself, which had been given by one of Alvaro's followers, Fray Juan de Valenzuela. Otherwise, the only evidence is negative, consisting of the efforts of the Poor Clares to resist a similar 'observance' of the Franciscan rule in their convent. ⁽²⁰⁾ The role of religious communities as landlords obviously posed a threat to their vocation, but it is not generally known if this worldly interest was balanced by fervent worship and prayer.

Some of the problems of tackling reform through the standard of the clergy are illustrated by the succession of bishops who presided over the diocese of Córdoba in the late Middle Ages. When Isabella came to the throne in 1474, Don Pedro de Solier was bishop. He founded an illegitimate line of the Fernández de Córdoba family and his part in local politics, including expulsion from the city for supporting the Baena faction, has already been described. Don Pedro's death, in 1476, no doubt helped to reduce seignorial influence in local politics, but it is not clear that it did much to provide better spiritual leadership for the Córdoba Church. The succeeding appointments to the see, which for historical reasons was in the province of Toledo rather than that of Seville, were illustrative of the Crown's approach to the choice of bishops, thanks to the share which Ferdinand and Isabella obtained in papal investitures of such offices. The next seven bishops of Córdoba, who together spanned the years from 1476 to 1510, were all outsiders and all royal servants. Fray Alonso de Burgos (1476-82) was a Dominican friar, at one time the queen's confessor. Significantly, both he and the next bishop, Don Tello de Buendia (1483-4), were members of the princess Isabella's council during the last, stormy years of her brother's reign. Don Tello showed his devotion to the Crown by acting as a royal witness in the legal case concerning the Crown's repossession of the marquisate of Villena.

The next bishop, Don Iñigo Manrique, was a lawyer, like his predecessor, [175] and it is improbable that he saw much of Córdoba during his ten years' occupation of the see (1486-96), because he presided over the audiencia of Valladolid and later of Ciudad Real. Don Iñigo was succeeded by two more courtiers, Don Francisco Sánchez de la Fuente (1496-8), who was a diplomat, and Don Juan Rodriguez Fonseca (1499-1505), who served the Crown with distinction, particularly in connection with the Indies. Don Juan Daza, who held the see from 1505 to 1510, had the misfortune of presiding over some very difficult years, including the revolt of the marquis of Priego in 1508, which is said to have been precipitated by some of his retainers. He was succeeded by the first locally born bishop since Solier, Martín Fernández de Angulo, whose period of office lasted six years. The careers of these prelates do not suggest that Catholic reform under Ferdinand and Isabella increased the level of pastoral care exercised by diocesans. The merits which led to the appointment of these individuals as bishop of Córdoba seem to have been more concerned with the government service than with Christian leadership. The two local men who obtained the job were members of noble families, and while there is no reason to suppose that bishop Angulo's character was as fiery and non-ecclesiastical as that of Don Pedro de Solier, a commitment by both prelates to the aspirations of the local aristocracy was more or less inevitable. In some cases, late medieval Castilian bishops brought their administrative skills to bear on pastoral problems, in the context of provincial councils and diocesan synods, but although bishop Manrique was one of those despatched by the Crown in 1487 to reform the Benedictines elsewhere in Castile, there are no surviving records of diocesan synods in Córdoba before the 1520s. ⁽²¹⁾

If the bishops were frequently preoccupied with non-pastoral matters, what of the Cathedral clergy? The Córdoba chapter, in common with others in the Peninsula in this period, contained a number of local aristocrats, from families such as the Ponce de León, Sotomayor and Valenzuela. It also included men of humbler origin, some of whom became entangled with the Inquisition. ⁽²²⁾ Canons, whether in the Cathedral chapter or in collegiate churches such as St Hippolytus in Córdoba, were not normally expected to undertake pastoral duties. It is, however, worth enquiring into their level of culture and in the case of the Cathedral this may be done through an investigation into the chapter library.

There is some evidence that bishops and canons used the library and also owned books themselves. In January 1508, the chapter received [176] a legacy of books from the late canon Juan Alfonso de Astorga, including two manuscript commentaries on the Decretals, three others in print and a 1485 printed edition of sermons preached at the council of Basle by Lodovico Pontano di Roma. The most important benefaction to the Cathedral library in this period was in 1516, when bishop Angulo died, leaving his books and manuscripts to be sold in order to help pay for a monstrance made by Enrique de Arfe to display the Blessed Sacrament in procession. In the event, the papal nuncio, who had been entrusted by Angulo with carrying out the terms of his will, ordered the chapter to keep the books and find the money for the monstrance from some other source. Among the items thus added to the library was a manuscript containing thirteen of the bishop's judgements in civil and canon law cases. His printed books were also legal texts and commentaries. There is some evidence that chapter members borrowed books and manuscripts and even the notorious bishop Solier returned some in 1476. Not surprisingly, the library was strongly biased towards theological works and, even more, towards the law, but there were also a few Classical texts of authors frequently found in fifteenth-century libraries, such as Cicero, Ovid and Seneca. There was also a supply of liturgical texts for use in the Cathedral services. Between 1502 and 1505, bishop Fonseca paid for thirty-one illuminated choir-books and another thirty were added in bishop Daza's time. This production, at least, took place despite the disturbances of the years 1506-8. ⁽²³⁾

To what extent erudition radiated from the Cathedral is not entirely clear. The theoretical position regarding the education of the Cathedral clergy is set out in a Statute made in favour of students, dated 23 August 1466. The document refers to two categories of scholar, those who studied grammar, logic or philosophy in Córdoba itself and those who went away to university. The Córdoba students were required to attend the choir at the hour of Nones, before beginning their studies, and to be present at the High Mass on Sundays and major festivals. All their fees were paid by the chapter, as were the fees and expenses of those who went away to study theology or laws at Salamanca or Valladolid universities. Sigüenza and Alcalá de Henares were later added to this list. The 1466 statute required students to produce a residence certificate, called a mora tracta, each year. They were allowed eight years to complete their courses and their fee allowance from Córdoba was cut by half if they acquired benefices or prebends in their university town. Natives of Salamanca or Valladolid were sent to study in each other's towns, so that they would not be distracted from their work. [177] The grammar and logic courses in Córdoba, which had to be completed before a student went away to university, lasted four years. According to the actas of the Cathedral chapter, the grammar master had a bachelor's degree. According to the terms of appointment of Bach. Alfonso Rodríguez in 1498, the master received a salary from the chapter in grain and cash and in addition he might claim a florin per annum for each student he taught. He was also required to report his students' expenses to the chapter, so that they might be reimbursed. It appears that there were facilities for the study of music in the Cathedral, though there are no surviving details of a formal choir school apart from what is implied in the documents already quoted. The success or otherwise of these measures cannot be accurately assessed, but a statement in the chapter actas for 3 January 1464 that, 'all holders of benefices in this church, present or future, who cannot read or sing, should work in order to learn', hardly inspires confidence. In fact, the next day's chapter recorded a long list of offenders and such provisions were regularly repeated in later years. It was not uncommon for canons to be excused from choir services in order to prepare for such ordeals as preaching a sermon. ⁽²⁴⁾

If ignorance of the basic priestly skills was so prevalent even among those who had the most opportunity to study, it seems improbable that the lay Christians of Córdoba suffered from a surfeit of instruction in the faith. As the historian cannot have a window into another man's soul, it is inevitable that Christianity in the city must be judged by the public conduct of the majority of citizens who adhered to that religion. There is good reason, based on the Scriptures, for arguing that a revealed religion cannot be said to affect the world, or indeed exist, unless it shows itself in the conduct of human society. Such is the explanation for the stress which has been laid up to now on the institutional manifestations of Christianity. However, historically, Christianity was neither the first nor the last revealed monotheistic religion and it is arguable that one of the most effective criteria for judging the practice of Córdoba's Christians is their behaviour towards the adherents of the other 'religions of the Book', Islam and Judaism, who lived for so long in their midst.
 

In view of Córdoba's past as the capital of the caliphs, it may be best to consider first of all the surviving influence of Islam in the late medieval city. Although the population of Muslim Córdoba was cleared out soon [178] after the Reconquest, a certain number of Muslim artisans were soon reimported and thereafter a small community survived many vicissitudes until its final expulsion in 1502. To judge from its contribution to the special tax (pecho) which the Moors paid in addition to normal levies, the Córdoba community in 1293 was about half the size of that in Seville. The real number is not known, but a Cathedral document states that after the treaty concluded between Ferdinand IV of Castile and Muhammad III of Granada in 1304, some of Córdoba's Muslims emigrated to Granada, leaving behind a shortage of skilled stonemasons. Nieto speculates that the loss was more significant in quality than in quantity, but in any case the problem of depopulation in the Muslim community (aljama) is referred to once again in a privilege of John I, dated 2 January 1386. This time the cause is said to be excessive tax-demands, though the Crown appears to be more interested in the difficulties thus created for the municipal finances than in the plight of the Moors. ⁽²⁵⁾

Such insensitivity was to recur all too often in the succeeding century or so and it is perhaps significant that the tone for dealings between Christians and Muslims should have been set in the gloomy and defensive atmosphere of Castile in the 1380s. The royal protection which was used to justify the additional tax-demands made on the Moors did not save them from social restrictions. Mudéjares, as Muslims under Christian rule were known, had reduced rights at law and were, at least in theory, debarred from public office. There is little doubt, however, that as a result of the policy towards religious minorities which was defined by the Catholic Monarchs at the Cortes of Toledo in 1480, the Moorish aljamas of Castile began their decline into oblivion. Tax-demands were raised once more, on a series of occasions, after 1482, but even more grave a threat was the policy of separate development, interestingly known as apartamiento, which was revived in 1480. The Córdoba aljama seems to have been affected even before that date, as in a document dated 29 January 1480, which reveals a great deal about the city's Muslim community, the Crown refers to Moorish protests at their removal to another part of town. Until the corregidor Francisco de Valdés had tried, recently, to move them to a street in the old castle (Alcázar Viejo), in the parish of St Bartholomew, they had lived in streets near the central square, the Plaza de las Tendillas de Calatrava, in houses which they either owned or rented, where they had carried on trades such as boot- and shoe-making and ironwork, and useful occupations such as veterinary surgery, 'ever since the aforesaid [179] city has been Christian', 'serving with them well and famously the welfare of the aforesaid city and the pleasure and honour of its citizens'.

The Córdoba Muslims' reward for this loyal service was to be evicted from their traditional quarter and the move seems to have been disastrous. In the Alcázar Viejo, their health deteriorated and thirty out of the thirty-five married Moors died as a result. Apparently cut off from their former means of economic support, the rest were soon suffering from malnutrition. They also lost their Mosque. Strenuous complaints by the Muslim community to its official protector, the Crown, produced an instruction to the pesquisidor in Córdoba, Diego de Proaño, to investigate the situation and if possible find a remedy. In response to Proaño's report, the Monarchs ordered that a new Moorish quarter (morería) should be found, but insisted that the Muslims should continue to be separated from the rest of the community. ⁽²⁶⁾ In this unhappy state they seem to have continued until their forced conversion or expulsion in 1502. The Crown asked its corregidor to report on the Moors' goods and the apartamiento question in 1488 and 1490, while in 1495, Córdoba council sent jurado Pedro de Pedrosa to Court to discuss the taxation of the Muslim community. The last reference to this group in local records is a petition from converted Muslims to the council in which they successfully asked that they should not have to pay their last, thrice-yearly instalment of the special pecho on the Moors, because they had become Christians. ⁽²⁷⁾

This evidence from 1502, that some at least of Córdoba's Muslims preferred conversion to expulsion, raises wider questions about the contemporary relationship between Christianity and Islam. Ladero has observed that although Castilian legislation traditionally offered incentives to Muslims to change their religion, there is little sign of this offer being taken up until 1501. ⁽²⁸⁾ Up to then, Muslim communities, such as that of Córdoba, had kept their identity, often against heavy odds. Once the pressure to convert or leave became overwhelming, these small groups of humble artisans in Castile quietly vanished from the scene without ever causing problems of the kind which disturbed the Crown of Aragon.

The weakness of Córdoba's Muslim community in the late Middle Ages and the ease with which it was eventually suppressed contrast with the strongly Islamic character of the city's physical appearance and artistic life. Reference has already been made to the survival of the complex street plan and market-sites of Muslim Córdoba, but even more interesting than the urban environment is the attitude of Christian [180] citizens towards it. Recent work has suggested that the relationship between the two sides in the Reconquest was far more complex than had previously been thought. The society of the frontier thus became unique in Europe. Moors and Christians adopted the same military technique and they also evolved elaborate structures for dealing efficiently with problems such as the exchange of prisoners, theft and kidnapping. It was normally the responsibility of the local authorities to deal with such matters. As an important military base and frequent home of the Court during the Granada campaign, Córdoba was inevitably affected by the results of violent contact with the Moors, although it was no longer close to the frontier. It might be thought that the war effort and the exploits in the field of the local aristocracy would have raised tensions between the Christian majority and the Muslim minority within the city. In fact, though, the available evidence suggests that the state of war against the Moors coexisted with a continued admiration for Islamic culture. Angus MacKay has studied this phenomenon in the context of ballad poetry, but there is further evidence in the earliest known description of the city of Córdoba. This anonymous Latin piece, attributed to one 'Jerónimo' and found in Salamanca Cathedral library, diverges from the conventional form of medieval descriptions of cities in one particular and significant respect, that is, in its eulogy of the Cathedral of St Mary. ⁽²⁹⁾ The former Mosque is said to surpass the seven wonders of the Ancient World and its twelve doors, its arcades and its minaret are admired apparently without regard for the fact that they were products of Islamic art and religion. The former minaret, no longer extant, is illustrated in a Cathedral choir-book of 1502. ⁽³⁰⁾ It would be wrong to assume from the survival of the Mosque that Córdoba under Christian rule lived in continued subordination to Islamic cultural values. Nieto has argued forcefully that the artistic achievement of late fifteenth-century Córdoba was fully integrated with the Hispano-Flemish cultural idiom which was typical of most of Spain at the time. Jerónimo's text was apparently written in the first half of the century and by that time there were many books illuminated in the Gothic style in the Cathedral library. International Gothic was affecting some detailed additions to the Mosque itself by the time of bishop Fernando González Deza (1398-1424). The first major modification to the building, however, was the construction of a new choir in the Gothic style, begun under bishop Manrique (1486-96). While insignificant in comparison with the drastic alterations carried out in the [181] sixteenth century, this project is indicative of the artistic tastes of Christian Cordobans in the time of Ferdinand and Isabella. The illuminations in the early sixteenth-century Cathedral choir-books and the works of contemporary painters such as Bartolomé Bermejo, Pedro de Córdoba and Alfonso de Aguilar (not the magnate !), were typical products of the Hispano-Flemish style. ⁽³¹⁾ The Hospital of Saint Sebastian, opposite the Cathedral, remains a fine example of the Isabelline architectural school, more splendid than the almost contemporary Hospital of Charity, at the end of the Plaza del Potro.

Tolerance, or even admiration, of Islamic art had, therefore, its limitations. Whether or not it is true that Córdoba's attachment to its Islamic past diminished in the latter part of the fifteenth century, in favour of the Hispano-Flemish Gothic, it appears in any case that the city's Christian majority managed to separate completely in its mind the culture which produced the Great Mosque and the worthy Muslim artisans who, in the Catholic Monarchs' reign, still made and repaired its boots and shoes and healed its sick animals. Nonetheless, however much the physical survival of a Muslim community in the city may have strained the powers of assimilation of the Christians, the problems caused by the Muslims were as nothing in comparison with those posed by the past or current adherents of the oldest 'religion of the Book'.
 

There had probably been no time, at least since the eighth-century Muslim conquest, when Córdoba did not boast an important Jewish community. The golden age of coexistence (convivencia), which had so much benefited believers in all three religions, seems not to have ended, as far as the Jews were concerned, with the conquest of the city by Ferdinand III. In the mid-thirteenth century, the Cathedral chapter protested at the construction by Córdoba's Jews of a synagogue which it regarded as excessively ostentatious and a danger to the Christian faithful. Pope Innocent IV, in a bull dated 13 April 1250, ordered the bishop to investigate. No doubt there were other medieval synagogues in Córdoba, but the one which survives, in the traditional Jewish quarter to the north-west of the Mosque and the bishop's palace, probably dates from the beginning of the fourteenth century. ⁽³²⁾ The size of the Jewish community in this period is not known, but there is no doubt that it suffered a crippling blow in 1391, when riots, which had [182] been fomented in Seville, in part by the preaching of the archdeacon of Ecija, Ferrand Martínez, spread to Córdoba. Here, the main motive seems to have been robbery, but the result was many forced conversions to Christianity, as well as some killings. ⁽³³⁾ The Crown was much displeased by the attacks and Henry III immediately forbade any further violence against the Jews. As a result of his visit to Córdoba in 1395, the king ordered the royal lodging-master (aposentador), Pedro Rodríguez de Fonseca, to compile a full report of events, but no resulting documents survive. Nonetheless, it is clear that the Jewish community never recovered from the 1391 attack and many recent converts to Christianity are recorded in the Cathedral archive. ⁽³⁴⁾

As with the Muslims, the final destruction of Córdoba's Jewish aljama resulted from the policies of the Catholic Monarchs. On 16 March 1479, Ferdinand instructed the corregidor not to allow the Jews to leave the quarter in which the Monarchs had ordered them to be placed during their visit to the city in 1478. The apartamiento policy did not last long, however, as in 1483, in response to pressure from the newly established Inquisition, the Crown ordered the expulsion of all unconverted Jews from the archdiocese of Seville and the diocese of Córdoba. The order was not immediately effective, as the Córdoba Jewish community was still referred to in the allocation of tax contributions for the Granada war in 1485, but thenceforth there was no further mention of Jews in the city. ⁽³⁵⁾

Although Jewry ended its connection with Córdoba before the expulsion from Castile as a whole in 1492, the Jews had long since been replaced as the main social preoccupation of Christian Castilians by Jewish converts to Christianity, the conversos. After 1391, Jewish communities faithful to the old religion were to be found mainly in small towns or in the countryside, while those in cities such as Córdoba either moved or converted. ⁽³⁶⁾ By the mid-fifteenth century, these converts had begun to be as much disliked as their Jewish ancestors by the rest of the community. In 1449, during a rebellion in Toledo against John II, led by Pedro Sarmiento, the council of that city passed a Sentence-Statute, which debarred all New Christians and their descendants from holding public office in the city for evermore, on the grounds that conversos 'of Jewish descent', were 'suspicious in the faith of Our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ'. ⁽³⁷⁾ Although this first 'purity of blood' statute was strongly opposed by the papacy and by Castilian converso writers, the notion of limpieza de sangre slowly seeped into contemporary society. In Córdoba, the precentor Fernán Ruiz de Aguayo excluded conversos [183] from serving the altar in the chantry which he founded in the Cathedral in 1466. ⁽³⁸⁾

The most significant outbreak of anti -converso feeling in Córdoba in this period was, however, the riot of 1473. A number of chronicles may be used to establish the main events. In March of that year, the cofradía of Charity was holding a street procession. As it passed through the market-square known as the Rastro, a girl spilt what has been described as water (though other interpretations have been suggested) from a balcony on to a statue of Our Lady. The house concerned belonged to a converso. Fighting broke out in the street and a blacksmith called Alonso Rodríguez quickly took the lead. Other converso houses were attacked as well and the authorities were forced to act. Don Alonso de Aguilar, who effectively controlled Córdoba at the time, attempted to intervene, but he found it impossible to restrain the rioters and withdrew to his headquarters in the Alcázar for three days, emerging when it was all over to decree that no New Christian should ever again hold public office in the city. Many conversos fled during the attacks, some to Seville and later, when similar trouble broke out there, to Gibraltar. Others went to North Africa. ⁽³⁹⁾

On the face of it, the riots were religious in origin, the pretext being the insult offered to the Mother of God and hence to the Christian faith by the dropping of water on the statue. The procession took place in Lent, when Christian religious fervour was at a particularly high level, and was organised by the most influential of Córdoba's confraternities. Contemporary writers, however, suggested other interpretations. The converso chronicler Valera described the Brotherhood of Charity as a 'conspiracy in the city, under the colour of devotion'. He refers to a split among the lesser nobility which formed the municipal government, some of the nobles supporting the conversos and others, notably Pedro de Aguayo, joining in enthusiastically with the rioters. Modern work has tended to support Valera's view that robbery was a major motive for the 1473 riots. Documents in the Cathedral archive show that the conversos' houses burnt down in the attack were mainly in commercial districts, such as the fish-market, the meat-market, the fair-quarter (Calle de la Feria and surrounding streets) and the Plaza de las Tendillas. The Cathedral chapter afterwards referred to the riots as 'the robbery of the conversos which was carried out in the city'. It is, however, clear that the riots were also connected with the bando conflicts of the years 1464-74. All contemporary writers agree that the conversos had attached themselves to Don Alonso de Aguilar, and the [184] chronicler Palencia claims that they financed 300 knights for him. Some conversos had, through upper noble support, obtained various council posts, though lack of evidence makes it impossible to provide names. Palencia states that conversos illegally purchased offices in Córdoba, but this was probably not in fact necessary, as it was not difficult for a magnate such as Don Alonso to secure their appointment by the Crown, in the normal course of events. ⁽⁴⁰⁾ What is clear is the connection between conversos and the upper nobility and hence the links between anti-converso feeling in Córdoba and, on the one hand, seignorial faction-fighting and, on the other, lower-class resentment of wealthy converso financiers and traders and their upper-class protectors.

The issues raised by the 1473 riots were further highlighted after the introduction of the Inquisition to Córdoba in 1482. This measure followed Ferdinand and Isabella's visit to Andalusia in 1477-8 and appears to have been part of their policy of restoring order in the region. There was a widespread conviction that many of those who benefited from noble protection were not really converted to Christianity at all, but were continuing their Jewish practices without suffering the social disabilities which went with public loyalty to the Jewish faith. The Inquisition was thus intended not only to enforce religious purity but also to curb seignorial influence. On 4 September 1482, Córdoba Cathedral chapter gave permission to Pedro Martínez de Barrio, Bach. Alvar García de Capillas and Bach. Antón Ruiz de Morales, canons, who had been appointed to the city as inquisitors by the Crown and the pope, to be absent from choir services while carrying out their duties. Antón de Córdoba was instructed to accept the post of notary to the Inquisition, provided that he appointed a deputy to record the acts of the chapter. ⁽⁴¹⁾

The impact of the Holy Office was quickly felt in Córdoba in various ways, the most obvious of which were the reconciliation and the burning of heretics. 'Reconciliation' involved the heretic's confession of guilt and readmission to the Church. Burnings normally involved those who relapsed, or returned to their heretical ways, but even reconciliation could mean death, as the inquisitors believed that they were saving their victims' souls from an eternity in hell. Only a selection of the Inquisition's convictions are recorded, as the Córdoba trial documents for this period are not extant. At least two jurados and two escribanos lost their offices for judaising between 1484 and 1486. From 1484 until 1492, ten individuals reconciled to the Church after admitting their guilt had their obligation to pay their debts postponed by the Crown because their goods had been confiscated by the Inquisition. Debts [185] incurred before conviction were to be paid when they had acquired some more wealth. Apart from office-holders, the Holy Office's victims in this period included a tanner, a dyer, a spicer, a shoe-maker and a farmer (labrador). ⁽⁴²⁾

Another effect of the inquisitors' activity in the early years was the traffic in confiscated goods. From 1481, the receiver of goods for Andalusia was Lic. Fernán Yáñez de Lobón, an alcalde of the royal household and Court. By 1487, he had been replaced by Diego de Medina, and in 1502, Don Luis de Sotomayor, the Franciscan son of the third count of Belalcázar, was appointed by the Crown to this office. ⁽⁴³⁾ The Crown often used goods confiscated in this way to reward its servants, for example the secretary Francisco de Madrid, the chief accountant Dr Juan Díaz de Alcocer and the royal chaplain Lorenzo de Valverde. Local beneficiaries from this particular kind of royal largesse included the Cathedral chapter and Don Alonso de Aguilar. ⁽⁴⁴⁾ However, despite the fact that, to begin with at least, the upper classes in Córdoba had this reason to support the Inquisition, the long-term threat which that institution posed to the conversos was bound eventually to change that state of affairs.

The conflict between the noble and converso interests was highlighted by the career of Diego Rodríguez Lucero, a canon of Seville who became inquisitor of Córdoba in 1495. Once he took over, the rate of convictions increased and in 1503 five escribanos were arrested. As early as 1487, the Crown had found it necessary to order the magistrates of the seignorial town of Chillón not to obstruct the work of the inquisitors. By 1501, such tension had spread to Córdoba itself, with the result that the alguacil mayor, no less, attacked the Inquisition's notary, who recorded confiscated goods, while he was about his lawful business. The constable was duly dismissed and banished by the Crown, but the incident turned out to be only the beginning of the trouble between the city and the inquisitors. ⁽⁴⁵⁾

A leading role in the successful campaign against Lucero was played by the Cathedral chapter. The canons had been suspicious of the inquisitors from the start and when prominent Cathedral officials such as the chancellor (maestrescuela) began to be arrested and even burnt, it may be imagined that relations deteriorated fairly rapidly. The city council and the Cathedral chapter sank their differences and mounted a propaganda campaign, directed both at the archbishop of Seville, as Inquisitor-General, and at the Crown, which culminated in the condemnation and forced retirement of Lucero at a Catholic Congregation [186] in Burgos in July 1508. The campaign coincided with the economic, social and political dislocation of the years 1506-8. It is important to note, however, that not all the citizens of Córdoba supported the secular and ecclesiastical authorities in their opposition to Lucero. Although in early 1507 the council and chapter seem to have organised the breaking open by a mob of the Inquisition prison in the Alcázar, after which Lucero had to escape by the back gate on a mule, there are clear statements by contemporaries that some of the lower classes were keen to see the inquisitors' work continue, because it involved the arrest of wealthy conversos. ⁽⁴⁶⁾ As a servant of the marquis of Priego wrote to his master at the time, 'Your lordship knows the condition of the common people in this case, that they would like there to be many heretics, to see them arrested and burnt.' ⁽⁴⁷⁾

Apart from its obvious drastic effect on the converso community, Lucero's period as inquisitor left its mark on the city as a whole, both physically and mentally. At a council-meeting on 1 February 1514, it was agreed that Francisco de Aguayo should be told to speak to the current inquisitors about 'the account of the synagogues' (la relación de las synogas). The phrase is explained more fully in one of a list of petitions to the Crown, drawn up to be taken to Court by Gonzalo Cabrera. During his time in Córdoba, Lucero had ordered the demolition of two houses, one of them belonging to Juan de Córdoba, 'who was known as the mad jurado' (rabio), on the grounds that they were used as synagogues by judaising conversos. The Congregation of Burgos had, on royal orders, declared the accusation to be untrue and Córdoba council now petitioned the Crown to grant the sites for rebuilding as public property. If the Crown had already given them to private individuals, the new owners should similarly be required to rebuild as soon as possible, 'in order that such a memory may disappear'. ⁽⁴⁸⁾

Were it not for the Holocaust of the twentieth century, it might be hard to understand the fury which the presence of Jews, and in particular those who had converted to Christianity but retained some of their old habits, aroused among the Old Christian citizenry of Córdoba. In the aftermath of the 1391 attack on the city's Jewish community, so many of the remaining Jews converted that those still faithful to the old religion, like the Muslims, seem not to have attracted the odium of the Christians. The role of the Inquisition in Spanish society between its refoundation in 1478 and its final abolition in 1836 was so extensive that it is tempting to think of its introduction as inevitable. Such was far from being the case. The establishment of the [187] Holy Office in Andalusia was preceded by a fierce theoretical debate which appeared to have been won by those who argued that, in the words of Nicholas V's bull Humani generis inimicus, dated 24 September 1449,

Between those newly converted to the faith, particularly from the Israelite people, and Old Christians there should be no distinction in honours, dignities and offices, whether ecclesiastical or secular. ⁽⁴⁹⁾

After 1391, attention shifted to the conversos. Just as in the fourteenth century the Jews had become the focus of general discontent, partly because some of them were successful government financiers and tax-collectors, so in the fifteenth jealousy among Old Christians was caused by the ease and rapidity with which former Jews achieved success in ecclesiastical and secular society, once a change of religion had removed the bar to their holding office. This general dislike of Old Christians for New was focused in each of the violent incidents which preceded the introduction of the Inquisition. ⁽⁵⁰⁾

It is nonetheless striking that, although the Jewish and Muslim minorities ultimately suffered the same fate, it was the Jews and Jewish converts to Christianity who attracted the real hatred of the Old [188] Christian majority. The higher social status of some Jews and conversos undoubtedly explains this in part, but it seems hard to avoid the conclusion that another vital factor was the theological place of Judaism in a predominantly Christian society. In the minds of medieval Christians, the Jews were not only corporately guilty of the crucifixion of Christ but, by refusing to accept Him as the Messiah, forfeited their previous role as God's chosen people. The new Israel was the Church and the surviving Jews were a guilty and blind minority which existed on the margin of Christian society, alternately the recipients of royal protection, which simply served to isolate them from their fellow-citizens, and the victims of a theology which in its practice vacillated between acceptance that Jews would remain as wanderers and exiles on Earth until Jesus' second coming and efforts to convert them to Christianity by blandishments or by force. Thus although attacks on Jews and conversos may largely be explained by political, social and economic circumstances, there was always the theological role of Judaism to add fury to the intolerance of the majority. In late medieval Córdoba, the Christian failure to come to terms with the origins of that faith added a special ingredient to the political and economic tensions of the region. In addition, the obsession with Judaism, in its religious and racial aspects, had a significant effect on the character of Christianity in Córdoba. The city followed the fashion of other parts of western Europe in the parallel tendencies towards charitable works and mysticism, the former represented predominantly by the brotherhoods and the latter by groups of religious women, living in small communities which were often not part of any specific order. However, there is no sign of theological radicalism either in the official reform movement, which is hardly surprising, or in more spontaneous religious manifestations. There is a little evidence of Béguines in late fourteenth-century Seville, but none, as yet, in Córdoba. Foreigners, including the sceptical Guicciardini, were not impressed by the level of devotion among Spanish Christians. The concentration on the defence of the faith against real or imaginary attack by Jews or Muslims seems to have consumed energies which might otherwise have been employed in criticism of traditional Catholic theology and hierarchy. Thus the contemporary identification of religious belief with social conformity was particularly accentuated and a gulf developed between the preoccupations of Christians in Spain and those elsewhere in Europe which was to have a dramatic effect on hopes for unity in the Reformation period. ⁽⁵¹⁾

1. Ladero, 'Producción y renta cereales', Andalucía Medieval, i, 387-8

2. Ladero and González Jiménez, Diezmo eclesiástico, p. 26.

3. Teodomiro Ramírez de Arellano, Paseos por Córdoba o sean apuntes para su historia, 3rd edn (Córdoba, 1976), pp. 101, 156, 289, 468-9, 550, 206, 31, 147, 563, 413, 358, 528-9, 523-4. Nieto, 'La reforma del clero regular en Córdoba (1400-1450)', in Andalucía medieval. Nuevos estudios (Córdoba, 1979), pp. 219-28.

4. Antonio Goilantes de Terán, 'Los señoríos andaluces, análisis de su evolución territorial en la Edad Media', HID, vi (1979), 8 (offprint). RGS 1497, fol. 307.

5. Ladero, 'Producción y renta cereales', pp. 393-6. Emilio Cabrera, 'Renta episcopal y producción agraria en el obispado de Córdoba en 1510', Andalucía Medieval, i, 406-10.

6. Cabrera, 'Renta', pp. 409-10.

7. Ramírez de Arellano, Paseos, pp. 25, 413, 206, 563, 147. Nieto, 'La reforma', pp. 220-6.

8. Ramírez de Arellano, Paseos, pp. 41, 137, 207.

9. Ibid., pp. 144, 25.

10. APC Of. 14 vol. 30 sec. ,10 fols. 7-25.

11. RAH Morales 0-14 fols. 847-9v.

12. Marie-Claude Gerbet, 'Les confréries religieuses a Cáceres de 1467 a 1523', MCV, vii (1971), 75-113. Evidence for noble cofradías in the Córdoba area is confined to the lordship of Priego. See M. C. Quintanilla Raso, Nobleza y señoríos en el reino de Córdoba. La casa de Aguilar (siglos XIV y XV) (Córdoba, 1979), pp. 86-7.

13. RAH Morales 0-14, fols. 845, B45v-6. AMC Actas 21.4.1503.

14. APC Of. 14 vol. B sec. 3 fols. 14-19, vol. II sec. 6 fols. 111-15, vol. 13 sec. II fols. 123-8, vol. 16 sec. 3 fois. 10-19, sec. 5 fols. 4v-6v, sec. 7 fols. 61-5, sec. II fols. 31v-4, vol. 37 sec. 15 fob. 28-9, vol. 43 sec. I fols. 1-4.

15. APC Of. 14 vol. 41 sec. 4 fols. 14-20. Some details concerning the religious patronage of Doña Catalina and her son in their lordships are provided by Quintanilla, Nobleza y señoríos, p. 156.

16. APO Of. 14 vol.41 sec. 19 fols. 1-12 (6.11.1507).

17. APC Of. 14 vol. B sec. 3 fols. 14-19, vol. ii sec. 6 fols. 111-15, vol. 12 sec. 4 fols. 63-5, sec. 7 fols. 1-4, vol. 13 sec. II fols. 110-12, 123-8, vol. 16 sec. 4 fols. 3-4, 4v-7, vol. 17 sec. 1 fols. 7-13, vol. 43 sec. 1 fols. 1-4. Of. 18 vol. 3 fols. 877-81v, vol. 4 fols. 245v-53.

18. José Sánchez Herrero, Las diócesis del reino de León. Siglos XIV y XV (León, 1978).

19. The best general surveys of Catholic reform in late medieval Castile are by Tarsicio de Azcona, Isabel la Católica (Madrid, 1964), pp. 425-98, 557-622, on the 1474-1516 period and, more generally, J. N. Hillgarth, The Spanish kingdoms, 1250-1516 (2 vols., Oxford, 1968), ii, 88-125, 394-410.

20. Azcona, Isabel, pp. 568-70, Hillgarth, The Spanish kingdoms, ii, 402. Nieto, 'La reforma', pp. 221, 224-5.

21. Ramírez de Arellano, Paseos, pp. 585-6. Azcona, Isabel, pp. 53, 168-9, 681, 579. For examples of synodal and conciliar legislation, see Sánchez Herrero, Concilios provinciales y sínodos toledanos de los siglos XIV y XV (La Laguna, 1976), and F. Javier Fernández Conde, Gutierre de Toledo, obispo de Oviedo (1377-1389). Reforma eclesiástica en la Asturias bajomedieval (Oviedo, 1978).

22. Ladero, 'Producción y renta cerealeras', Andalucía Medieval, 1, 387-8.

23. Antonio García y García, Francisco Cantelar Rodríguez, Manuel Nieto Cumplido, Catálogo de los manuscritos e incunables de la catedral de Córdoba (Salamanca, 1976), pp. xxxviii-xli, ivii-lx, lxxi-lxxiv. Nieto, La miniatura en la catedral de Córdoba (Córdoba, 1973), pp. 32-4.

24. García y García et al., Catálogo, pp. lxv-ixx (Statuto fecho en favor de los estudiantes in AGO Actas, iii, fols. 103-5v). ACC Actas iii, fol. 81v (3-4 Jan. 1464) and fol. 132 (28.8.1471). See also Richard L. Kagan, Students and society in early modern Spain (Baltimore and London, 1974).

25. Ladero, 'Los mudéjares de Castilla en la baja Edad Media', HID, y (1978), 15-16 (offprint). Nieto, 'La crisis demográfica y social del siglo XIV en Córdoba', Anales del Instituto Luis de Góngora, iii (1972), 31-2.

26. Ladero, 'Los mudéjares', pp. 22-36. RGS 1-1480 fol. 46, v-1480 fol. 87.

27. RGS 20.1.1488, 2.4.1490. AMC Actas 20.5.1495, 15.7.1495.

28. Ladero, 'Los mudéjares', p. 39.

29. Angus MacKay, 'The ballad and the frontier in late mediaeval Spain', Bulletin of Hispanic Studies, liii (1976), 15-33. 'Jerónimo', Córdoba en el siglo XV, ed. and trans. Manuel Nieto Cumplido (Córdoba, 1973). For a comparison with contemporary Italian and Spanish descriptions of cities see Robert B. Tate, 'The civic humanism of Alfonso de Palencia', Renaissance and Modern Studies, xxiii (1979), 36-40.

30. Jerónimo, Córdoba, pp. 50-1. Nieto, La miniatura, pl. 56.

31. Nieto, Corrientes artísticas en la Córdoba medieval cristiana (Córdoba, 1975) (no page numbers), and La miniatura, pp. 19-36.

32. Francisco Oantera Burgos, Sinagogas de Toledo, Segovia y Córdoba (Madrid, 1973), pp. 153-4.

33. Nieto, 'Luchas nobiliarias y movimientos populares en Córdoba a fines del siglo XIV', in Manuel Riu Riu, Cristóbal Torres, Manuel Nieto Cumplido, Tres estudios de historia medieval andaluza (Córdoba, 1977), pp. 43-6.

34. Fritz Baer, Die Juden im christlichen Spanien, i, pt 2, pp. 232-3 (Henry III, Segovia, 16.6.1391), 245 (Aliseda, 13.6.1396). Nieto, 'Luchas nobiliarias', p. 43.

35. AMC Actas 23.3.1479. Baer, Die Juden, i, pt 2, pp. 348-9. Luis Suárez Fernández, Documentos acerca de la expulsión de los judíos (Valladolid, 1964), pp. 35-6.

36. Hillgarth, The Spanish kingdoms, ii, 144.

37. Eloy Benito Ruano, Los orígenes del problema converso (Barcelona, 1976), pp. 85-92, 44-5.

38. Nieto, 'La revuelta contra los conversos de Córdoba en 1473', Homenaje a Antón de Montoro en el V centenario de su muerte (Montoro, 1977), p. 35.

39. Diego de Valera, Memorial de diversas hazañas, ed. Juan de Mata Garriazo (Madrid, 1941), pp. 240-3. Alfonso de Palencia, Décadas, trans. A. Paz y Melia (Madrid, 1904-9), iii 107-16. See also Nieto, 'La revuelta', pp. 31-49.

40. Palencia, Décadas, iii, pp. 107-10. Montalvo 7-2-9. Diego Pérez, Pragmáticas, law 65, fol. 55. Nieto, 'La revuelta', pp. 36-40, 44-5.

41. ACO Actas, iv, fol. 142v.

42. RGS 8.2.1484, 21.2.1484, 20.12.1484, 20.2.1485, 15.2.1485, 15.6.1486, 4.4.1487, 4.1487, 7.4.1487, 8.4.1487, 29.8.1487, 26.2.1490, 30.4.1485, 24.9,1491, 27.1.1492. AGO Caj. L No. 513 (28.3.1487), Caj. G No. 247 (17.2.1492).

43. El tumbo de los Reyes Católicos del concejo de Sevilla, ed. Juan de Mata Garriazo, iii, 159-62. ACC Caj. L No. 513. APO Of. 14. vol. 41 sec. 4 fols. 6-7.

44. RGS 28.3.1487, 4.4.1487, 3.11.1488, 26.1.1489. AGO Caj. F No. 420.

45. RGS 8.7.1487. Henry C. Lea, 'Lucero the inquisitor', American Historical Review, ii (1896-7), 611-26. Yun, Crisis, pp. 209-15.

46. ACC Actas, vi, fol. 30V (10.5.1498). Lea, 'Lucero', pp. 612-13, 625.

47. Rodrigo Blázquez to the marquis of Priego, in A. Paz y Melia, Series de los más importantes documentos del archivo del excmo Sr Duque de Medinaceli (Madrid, 1915), Primera serie, doc. 96. For a fuller account of these episodes see Edwards, 'La révolte du marquis de Priego a Cordoue en 1508: un symptôme des tensions d'une société urbaine', MCV, xii (1976), 165-72.

48. AMC Actas, 1.2.1514.

49. Benito, Los orígenes, pp. 51-2. Other works supporting this view include Alonso de Cartagena, Defensorium unitatis christianae, ed. P. Manuel Alonso (Madrid, ,1943); Fernán Díaz de Toledo, Instrucción del relator para el obispo de Cuenca, a favor de la nación hebrea, in Cartagena, Defensorium, pp. 343-56; Lope de Barrientos' reply in Defensorium, pp. 324-38; Juan de Torquemada, Tractatus contra madianitas et ismaelitas, ed. Nicolás López Martínez and Vicente Proaño Gil (Burgos, 1957).

50. Philippe Wolff, 'The 1391 pogrom in Spain. Social crisis or not?', Past and Present, no. 50 (1971), 4-18. Angus MacKay, 'Popular movements and pogroms in fifteenth-century Castile', Past and Present, no. 55 (1972), 35-67. Nieto, 'Luchas nobiliarias' and 'La revuelta', passim.

51. Manuel González Jiménez, 'Beguinos en Castilla. Nota sobre un documento sevillano', HID, iv (1977), 109-14. Francesco Guicciardini, 'Relación de España escrita', in Viaje a España de Francesco Guicciardini, ed. José María Alonso Gamo (Valencia, 1952), p. 70.