Petatan                 En la cibdad de Santiago de la provincia de Guatemala
                            diez e nueve dias del mes de Hebrero año
Diego                   del nascimiento de maestro Salvador Jesu Cristo de myll
Sanchez                e quinientos e cuaranta e nueve anos por los señores
Santiago               presidente e oydores del audiencia y chanci
                            lleria real de su Magestad que en la dicha cibdad reside
                            se taso el pueblo de petatan que es en los terminos
                            e jurisdiccion de la dicha cibdad y esta encomendado en Diego
                            Sanchez Santiago vezino della mandose a los na
                            turales del dicho pueblo que en cada un año
                            le pagan una sementera de mahiz de dos fa
                            negas y se las beneficien cojan y encierren
                            en el dicho pueblo e media fanega de frisoles
                            y le den en cada año treynta mantas de las
                            que suelen y acostumbran a dar e cient petates
                            pequeños para barbacoas de los que acostum
                            bran a dar y seis açumbres de miel cada año
                            y tres cargas de agi e le den cuatro dozenas
                            de gallinas de castilla cada año e le den dos
                            yndios de servicio ordinarios en esta cibdad
                            con que sea obligado a darles de comer el tiempo
                            que se sirvieren y enseñarles la dotrina cristiana
                            no an de dar otra cosa ni se les a de lle
                            var a los dichos yndios por ninguna via que sea
                            ni comute ninguna cosa de un tributo en otra
                            cosa so la pena contenida en las leyes y ordi
                            nanças por su Magestad fechas para la buena governacion
                            de las Indias el licenciado Cerrato el licenciado
                            Pedro Rramirez el licenciado Rogel

                            En la ciudad de Santiago en la provincia de Guatemala a treynta
                            dias del mes de Dizienbre año del nascimiento de nuestro sal
                            vador Jesu Cristo de mill e quinientos e cinquenta años
                            por los señores presidente e oidores del audiencia y chance
                            lleria rreal de su Magestad que en la dicha cibdad reside fue
                            mandado a los naturales del pueblo de Petatan
                            que por los dos yndios de servicio que por esta tasacion
                            estaba mandado que diesen en esta cibdad
                            den en cada un año treynta mantas como las
                            demas contenidas en esta tasacion la mytad por
                            San Juan y la otra mytad por navidad y no
                            an de dar los dichos yndios de servicio........

Santiago de Guatemala

Tribal warfare—and its turmoil—had been the condition of affairs in Guatemala for centuries before the Spanish arrival in the early sixteenth century. Early evidence of it is to be seen in the change of town sites from open valley bottoms to mesa tops protected mostly by steep-walled ravines, and with small, defensible entryways.

Remote origins are to be found in earlier events in Mexico, where, after about a.d. 900 and until about 1200, the Toltecs, a group made up of disparate peoples including Chichimecs (not a disparaging term, but one proudly claimed by the descendants who remembered their prowess) became supreme in central Mexico (Diehl '83, p. 7; Coe '86, pp. 123-25). In the thirteenth century they moved into the Gulf region and small, military units went from Xicalanco on the Laguna de los Terminos in Campeche, up the Usumacita River and its tributaries into the highlands of Guatemala.

Their raids led to the relocation of towns from open lowlands to defensible highlands. Notwithstanding this protective device, the Mexicans succeeded in establishing themselves as a ruling elite over the mass of upland Guatemala Mayan-speaking peoples. Because there were relatively few of the conquerors, local languages persisted, and were adopted ultimately by the invaders (Carmack '81, p. 52).

The basic desires of the conquerors—made up of several groups— were conquest of territory, acquisition of tribute, and sacrificial victims (Carmack '68, pp. 44, 71-2, 86). Each conquering group established control over a territory, and each from its own territory became a potential rival of the others, a condition that led to internecine warfare.

Emerging as the most important of the conquering groups were the Quichés, whose class society made warfare the most important part of a noble's life (Orellana, '84, p. 57). The Cakchiquels, in an early period of time, served as troops under their command (Carmack '81, p. 378). That situation changed several generations prior to the Spanish conquest when the Cakchiquels became an independent force contesting with the Quichés for power. A third group, the Tzutujils, became involved in the tribal warfare, perhaps not by their own volition. Their tribal name identifies them as farmers, not, as do the names of the other two groups, with war and conquest. (Carmack, '81, p. 62). They settled and once controlled the lands circumnambient to Lake Atitlan which included extensions into the Pacific piedmont and coastal plain (Orellana, '84, pp. 52-54). Much of this territory had been appropriated by the Cakchiquels some generations prior to the Spanish conquest (Carmack, '81, p. 329 n.3, p. 140; Orellana, '84, pp. 52-54).

In this tumultuous area there may have been little possibility of an organization for trade similar to the government-chartered Pochteca of the Mexican plateau. Trade was an individual endeavor conducted, in spite of internal warfare, by a small, elite group of wealthy merchants who achieved a sufficient order to maintain long-distance trade and distribution without the tight politicization of the Pochteca (Sharer, '84, p. 82; Sabloff, cited by Hammond, '82, pp. 238-39). But that there was considerable efficiency in their trade is indicated by dishes designed to be stacked for effective use of space in transport and storage (Hammond '82, p. 146, quoting Eric Thompson).

The natives were dwellers in towns, small and large: villages for local exchange, and a few relatively large towns from which distant trade was effected.

Traders' attitudes as opposed to those of the truculent warriors were expressed by a 1571 informant who said that his forbears living in Atitlan—a traders' town—had submitted to Pedro de Alvarado, whereas the Indians of present Sololá, Tecpanguatemala, and Rabinal resisted (Indios de Atitlan -Simancas, Cartas, RAH Muñoz coll. vol. 42, f. 115-118).To traders the disruption of war can be anathema.

Towns on the tribute list

In the mid-sixteenth century, Santiago encomenderos held, not only territory of present Guatemala, but also the southwestern area of present El Salvador: the cacao-producing zone that composed the native province of Los Izalcos. It included Ahuachapan, Apaneca, Xuayoa (present Juayua), and Yzalco. Presumably Caluco was included although it was not listed. However, in the Relacion of 1583 (A.G.I. Patronato , legajo 183, no. 1, ramo 1 [2-2-4] it was included among the pueblos of Santiago; and the bishop Cortés y Larraz, in 1770 (Vol. 1, pp. 80ff), listed it as an ecclesiastical cabecera whose district included Nahulingo. From the territory of Caluco the boundary ran southward to the ocean. Towns to the east of it (and north of the territory of Ahuachapan) were included in the Spanish province of San Salvador.

After a quarter of a century of dominance in Central America, the Spanish Crown issued a precise list of tributes to be paid by the natives to their conquerors (legajo 128). In it, the list of towns paying tributes to the encomenderos of Santiago de Guatemala was recorded mostly in the four months. February 19 to June 19, 1549. It included 169 entries. Many towns that are known to have existed at that time do not appear. In a number of such cases, the omission resulted from the town being the annex of another. For example, in legajo 128, the town of Zapotitan, no. 117 on the tribute list, had three barrios under it: Cuyotenango, Mazatenango, and Cintecomatlan (AGCA, p. 18). The first two of these barrios are important towns now and could not have been negligible then, but their names do not appear on the tribute list. Several names appear more than once. In some cases there were two towns with the same name; but in others there was more than one listing of the same town because its tributes were divided between two or more encomenderos: such duplications occurred twenty three times. Position on the list is no necessary indication of geographical location, nor relation to the preceeding or following entries.

The position on the list of town names with an initial C-cedilla (Ç) is difficult to decide because some so listed in the sixteenth century are now spelled with an S (e.g., Sacapulas), others with a Z (e.g., Zacapa). For that reason, on this list, all those spelled with initial C-cedilla follow those with plain C.

In referring to a town, the number of its appearance on the list is shown and also, after a slash, its number of tributaries, e.g. Acatenango is listed three times: #75/100 est., #132/100 est., #139/80 which indicates that the seventy fifth entry was identified as Acatenango, and the number of tributaries is estimated to have been 100 (see section on estimating tribute populations at end of chapter). Another listing of Acatenango was in the hundred and thirty second position. It, too, showed no number of tributaries, so an estimate is given. The third entry of the name is in the hundred thirty ninth position. The number of tributaries was listed as being eighty.

Brackets—mostly around numbers of servants—indicate exchanges which are listed in chapter three, "Tributes."

Acatenango

The settlement of that name is now located at an elevation of 1571 meters (5154 feet), on a re-entry of lower country into the south slope of the mountains, west of Antigua Guatemala. Long before the Spanish conquest, the importance of that position for trade between the hot lowland and the densely settled interior had been exploited by the Cakchiquel Maya from their capital at Iximché, by the Mam of Zaculeu, and the Quiché at Utatlan. In spite of conflicts between these Maya groups, trade was generally maintained and the importance of the route was never broken for long (Morley, Brainard, and Sharer, p. 224). Such was the condition of affairs at the advent of the Spaniards.

In early years after the conquest the town was held in part by Diego Sanchez de Ortega (Kramer, Lovell, Lutz, and Swazey, 1990, p. 15). Another part—or a separate pueblo called San Bernabe Acatenango— was held by Jorge de Alvarado's servant, Andres de Rodas (Kramer, et al, p. 16)

The name appears three times on the tribute list. The entries are as follows

                                                                              

	#75/100 est.	#132/100 est.	#139/80
Encomendero	Andrea de Rodas	Gonçalode Alvarado and Pedro de Cavallos	The Crown
Maize	6	4	—
Beans	.5	—	—
Mantas	150	—	100
Chickens	96	72	—
Cacao	—	—	40
Salt	—	200	—
Petates	—	48	—
Servants	(6)*	(6)**	—
	* (exchanged for  100  tostones)	** (exchanged 36 gold pesos)

In 1531 (Kramer et al, '90, pp. 15,16), the two entries probably indicate two towns of the same name - as was the case about 1770 when the bishop Cortés y Larraz, referred to San Pedro Acatenango and San Bernabé Acatenango, about three leagues apart, (vol ii, p. 295).

The three entries of 1549 (numbers 75, 132, and 139) might involve two towns, with Andrea de Rodas retaining San Bernabé Acatenango that he had held in 1531 (Kramer, et al, '90, p. 16); but, given the approximate equality in values of the three entries of 1549, they probably represent a three-part division of one town that included a smaller annex. Cortés y Larraz (Vol. 11, p. 295) wrote that San Pedro Acatenango had only one quarter the population of San Bernabé).

Acatepeque(caption) Coçalchiname(text)#158/10, under Antonio de Salamanca, one of the conquerors with Pedro de Alvarado. Muñoz lists it as Cozalchiname-Acatepeque (Acad. de Hist., Madrid: Muñoz Coll. Vol. 85 ff 87-94). Payments of 900 lbs. of salt and 150 lbs. of fish indicate the coastal plain. This entry and the previous one (#157, Coçalchiname), which planted 200 lbs. of maize and paid sixty mantas to the Crown, may refer to same small town which was probably in the area of present El Salvador, near the Guatemalan border. (Sherman, p. 24; Lardé y Larin, p. 345; Barón Castro, p.612, n.9).

Acaxutla/#35/20, under Hernan Perez Peñate. Present Acajutla in El Salvador. By 1555 Perez Peñate had died, but the current encomendero was not named. In the review of tributes at that date, salt and fish were eliminated, and payment of cacao was reduced from twenty xiquipiles to fifteen.

Aguacatlan/#85/200, under Juan de Celada. This entry may refer to the same town as does #5 (Ystapalatengo y Aguacatlan), whose encomendero, the son of Juan Paez, was allotted a smaller number of tributaries and received a smaller proportion of the total tributes. The payment of feathers was unusual. Only one other town, Pajacis, #119, listed such payment. Even Queçaltepeque, named for the Quetzal birds, did not list them as tribute. Present Aguacatan is eastnortheast of Huehuetenango at 1670 meters elevation (5479 feet). By the time of the Central American review of 1554 (AGCA, legajo 2797, p. 11), Juan de Celada had died and his minor son was the heir of the encomienda. Tributes were not changed from those of 1549 except for the elimination of 100 lbs. of beans to be sown.

Aguachapa/# 109/100 est., under Bartolomé Marroquin (brother of the bishop). Now Ahuachapan in El Salvador. In the mid-sixteenth century Tomás López, of the Audiencia de los Confines, reported that the men spoke Nahuat and the women Pokomam, because of the recent Pipil conquest. The Pokomam town had been renamed, (cited by Lardé y Larin, p. 31). Pineda, shortly after the middle of the sixteenth century, reported that it was a prosperous town, that the natives took crops and pottery to trade for cacao at Izalcos; and some owned their own cacaotales . (pp. 453-54). Garcia de Palacio in 1576 (p. 21) referred to the fine pottery (más galana loza) made by the women "without the use of a potters' wheel, or any tool".........and that they made a red coloring matter for the pottery "from the excrescence of nearby hot springs".

The present town is in an area of faults and fissures approximately at the border between the older volcanics (Pliocene) and deposits of the younger (Quaternary) volcanics (Williams and Meyer-Abich, 1955, Reconnaissance map). Also see the soils map of the Republic of El Salvador (Mapa Pedologico, January, 1974) which shows it to be at the edge of the region of red clays (Latosols arcillo rojizos).

In 1586, Ponce also remarked about the special, fine, red pottery of the bonito pueblo. That the skill was continued is the testimony of Fuentes y Guzman toward the end of the seventeenth century (Vol. II, p. 40). But it would seem that the pottery was a trade item with little importance as tribute: none was paid to the encomendero in 1549.

Alotepeque

Two towns with this name appear on the tribute list.

#96/130, under Pedro de Ovid is unidentified now. Two other towns of his encomienda: #72, Teguantepeque, and #73, Texcoacao, were cacao-paying towns of the coastplain. Alotepeque paid cacao, and also fresh fish. It, like Teguantepeque, may have disappeared or, like Texcoaco, may have been absorbed by another coastplain town.

#166/75 est., under Gonçalo Ortiz. It, like three other towns in the encomienda of this man (Conetla, Chicuytlan, and Bohon), is not identified; but, like the others, its payments all suggest the inland west, near the Chiapas border and saline streams, e.g. petates, large mantas , henequen and salt. The specified size for the mantas (2X2 braças: about eleven feet square ) in that area was greater than that of any other area giving specifications in Santiago province. ( A Mexican influence?)

In the review of 1554 (AGCA, p.6) Gonçalo Ortiz was still the encomendero, but his tributes were reduced by 50 lbs. of sown maize, 300 lbs. of dried beans, 12.5 lbs. honey, 20 mantas, 5 chickens (and the remainder to be local fowl not European chickens as originally specified). There was one small increase, that of five mats (petates ).

Amatenango /#89/70

In early years, and until 1533, it was part of the encomienda of Rodrigo de Benavides who relinquished it in 1533 when he left for Peru. (Kramer, et al, '90, p. 17)

By 1549 the encomienda had been divided between Gutierrez de Gibaja and Mendez de Sotomayor. Jointly, they held four towns: two in present Chiapas (Amatenango, and Motolcintla), Cuilco, in present Huehuetenango near the Mexican border, and Suchitepéquez (probably present San Antonio Suchitepéquez).

Amatitan,/#18,#19,#20/356.

In 1528 the town was divided between Cristobal Lobo and Juan Freyle, (Kramer et al, '90, p. 14). Frayle's name does not appear on the 1549 list.

The three entries on the 1549 tribute list related to parts of one town and its anexos, under Cristobal Lobo: present Amatitlán, at 1,190 meters elevation (3904 feet), a town that had been founded by assembling five earlier pueblos (Chinchilla y Aguilar, p.29).

Its elevation is hardly enough for successful planting of wheat; but its annexes doubtless included the high territory that had formerly appertained to them (perhaps present Santa Lucia Milpas Altas and Magdalena Milpas Altas, both over 6,600 feet, had been a part of the encomienda). From town number 20, the encomendero was allotted an Indian to herd goats - the only reference to goats in the legajo. Perhaps even he didn't have any: the goatherd was exchanged for silver tostones.

Amayuca/#43/ 3. Granted, in 1528 by Jorge de Alvarado to Fernando de Arévalo who was forced to give it up two years later (Kramer, et al., '90, p.15). In 1549 it had been assigned to Diego de Alvarado and Juan de Astroqui, who received sixty five xiquipiles of cacao from it. Pineda (p.430) reported it as being near the sea, in the area of Escuintla; and remarked that it had formerly been a great pueblo "but now has only seven or eight Indians". Later it disappeared, as apparently, did another town, Chandelgueve, #82, under the same encomenderos.

Amystlan/#50/25 est., under Juan de Ecija. Paid 40 xiquipiles of cacao. Probably extinct.

Apaneca/#6/100, under the minor sons of Bartolome de Molina. In present El Salvador, at 1300 M. elevation (4265 feet) (Servicio Meteorologico, San Salvador, 1977), south of Ahuachapan. Two crops of maize per year were planted, and also 6 fanegas of wheat (which may have been at risk). As cotton was planted as well as cacao for the encomendero; and it was specified that the workers in the cacao plantation were to be fed when they worked in it, it would seem that he also held somewhat distant lower and warmer lands.

Ataco/#15/160, under the minor sons of Alonso Perez (who had held it in 1528: Kramer, et al., '90, p. 13). Present Concepción de Ataco, at 1340 meters elev. (4396 feet), near Ahuachapan. The cacao it paid in tribute either had to be acquired by trade with an area of lower elevation, or Ataco had lowland annexes.

Atescatempa/# 147/100, under Francisco de Utiel, a surgeon who received the tributes from the town by assignment from Jorge de Alvarado in the 1520s and passed them on to his heir in 1560 (Kr., L, L, and Sw, '90, p. 16). Present Atescatempa is at 700 meters elevation (2297 feet) in the department of Jutiapa. The name suggests that it may have been founded by Pipiles. Its chief payment, cacao, could hardly have been grown immediately near the town. Either the municipio included lower territory or the tributaries obtained it by trade.

Atiquipaque.

Its tributes were divided:

#14/25, under Martin de Guzman, and #22/30 under Juan Lopez. It was a Xinca town once named Atiepar (Lehmann,1920,p.747).The bishop Cortés y Larraz reported it as being west of Tasisco, Xinca in speech, with many insects, snakes, etc. and with poor harvests (Vol. II, pp. 232 ff). As tribute, the Indians paid maize, fish and cacao. The town no longer exists.

Atitlan/#l 16/1000. It was, soon after the conquest, allotted to Jorge de Alvarado (Kramer thesis, p. 81), but by 1529 it was jointly held by Pedro de Cueto and Sancho de Barahona (op. cit., p. 83). Cueto's share went, in 1533, to Jorge de Alvarado (Kramer et al, '90, p. 13). That share by 1549 was under the Crown, and the other share was held by the minor children of Sancho de Barahona. The sole payment, 1200 xiquipiles of cacao, was equally divided.

Present Santiago Atitlán was established in 1547, across the bay from the original Tzutujil capital of Chiyá, (a Tzutujil name equivalent to Nahuat" Atitan" - (Orellana, pp. 4, 122). Chiyá had been the principle settlement of the Tzutujils, and their nobles controlled and drew tribute from several lowland cacao-producing settlements including Nagualapa and San Antonio Suchitepéquez (Thompson, '48, p. 9), and north at least as far as present San Pedro and Santa Clara(op. cit. pp. 18-19, 49, 82, 131-33). A 1571 report by the native town leaders mentioned their pre-conquest estancias "now called Sant. Bartolomé i Sant Andres i Sant Francisco i Sancta Barbara" (RAH Munoz coll. vol. 42, f. 115-118). These lords may have traced their lineage back to the Mexican invaders of the thirteenth century (Thompson, '48, op. cit. pp. 26, 34, 47, 83, 87). The importance of the settlement was not based on local production, but because its position favored it to be a center of transport and trade. The bishop Cortés y Larraz described its territory as being very arid, and its harvests as being of some maize, beans, chili, and chia; and that there was some fishing in the lake (Vol. II, pp. 279 ff). MacLeod refers to its sixteenth century decline: he gives figures from the Relación de Santiago Atitlan for 1524 when it had 12,000 tributaries, that had decreased to 1,005 by 1585 (p. 131).

Ayllon/#69/160. From 1528 to 1530, one half was under Hernando de Yllescas, the servant of Jorge de Alvarado. The holder of the other half was not given (Kramer et al '90, p. 14). In 1549 the tributes were still divided, but between Juan Resino and Diego Diaz.

The town's payments of 120 mantas and 48 chickens were modest in view of the number of tributaries; but an allotment of ten servants was higher than average. They were exchanged for 150 tostones. Resino held other towns in the southeast; Diaz probably did. This town may have been in that region. However, Kramer,et al ('90, fig. 11) identify it with present Ilóm in interior Quiché province .

Basaco/#29/20, under Juan Resino. Present Pasaco, at 150 meters elev. (492 feet) in southeast Guatemala, was a Pupuluca town. Paxsaco was reported by Crespo as being hot, mosquito infested, and a salt producer ( p. 15). In tribute it paid 7,500 lbs. salt and 200 lbs. fish .

The encomendero Resino also held two other towns: Moyutla, #30, and Ayllon, #69. Neither paid high tributes. Present Moyuta is about thirty kilometers from the coast (by direct flight). Its tributaries—who were salt workers—may have aided in gathering the salt paid by Basaco. Unidentified Ayllon may also have been involved.

Bohon/#168/20 est. See comments regarding Alotepeque, #166.

In the review of tributes made in 1554 (AGCA, legajo 2797, p. 5) chickens were reduced by four (and they were to be "of the country", not European type fowl), the item of 300 lbs. of salt was eliminated, honey was unchanged. Twelve mats (petates ) were added.

Cacalutla/#77/100. Held in 1528 by their father (Kramer et al., '90, p. 15), in 1549 it was under the minor sons of "Inancio" de Bobadilla. Kramer,et al show it on their fig. 1 as being present Colotenango on the Selegua River, northwest of Huehuetenango city.

Cacaotlan/#25/20, under Alonso Marroquin. Unidentified. It paid 140 xiquipiles of cacao and 56 lbs. of fish, also fruit. Apparently a lowland setttlement now disappeared.

Caçaguastlan/#53/200, represents one of two towns in the encomienda of Cristobal de Salvatierra. On the 1977 map of Guatemala, two Acasaguastláns are shown, San Cristobal on the Motagua River at 250 meters elevation (820 feet) and San Agustin about six miles away on a small, left-bank tributary at slightly higher elevation. Pineda in the last half of the sixteenth century reported two towns named Ciçacahuaztlan. He noted that San Agustin was the smaller (p. 452).

The present municipio of San Agustin was important in pre-Columbian times for its jadeite, a trade-product for its Maya inhabitants (Morley, Brainerd, and Sharer, p. 213).

On the tribute list of 1549, payments from town #53/200, of which one half were made to Cristobal de Salvatierra, are precisely the same as those for #103, Caçaguastlan, under the minor sons of Anton de Morales, one of the conquerors of Guatemala with Alvarado (Fuentes y Guzman, 1883, Vol. 11, p. 375), who died, as did Alvarado's wife, in the disaster of 1541 (Remesal, Vol. II, p.43). The two towns were probably considered as a unit, and the total payments divided equally between the encomenderos.

In 1554, the encomenderos of 1549 were still alive, but 80 xiquipiles of cacao were also to be paid to Alonso Marroquin (AGCA, legajo 2797, exp. 40466, p. 1), presumably added to the 140 xiquipiles paid to him by the tributaries of Cacaotlan (no. 25) in 1549.

Camotlan/# 148/100, under Hernan Perez Peñate. Present Camotlan, in the department of Chiquimula, at 471 meters elevation (1545 feet), is Chorti in speech. Camotes (sweet potatoes) are still important.

Cerquil/# 164/80, under Santos de Figueroa. Unidentified. The payment of henequen may be suggestive: other towns listing it: Coatlan, Conetla, were in the inland west; and Olaverreta (1740) refers to cordage from San Andrés Jacaltenango, and Santo Domingo Sacapula(pp. 20, 22)

Chalchuytlan/#8/60. In the late 1520s, Jorge de Alvarado may have granted one half of the tribute of the town to Alonso Pulgar (Kramer et al, '90, p. 16). His sons held one half in 1549 when Hernan Perez Peñate held the other half. Lovell ('85, p.97) identifies the town as present Chalchitán, part of Aguacatlán. The Diccionario Geografico (Vol. 1, pp. 9-10) refers to the ruins in that municipio and states that the settlement must have been important, and that the Indians still call the eastern part of Aguacatán, Chalchitán.

Chancoate/#l36/50 est., under Cristobal Lobo. Now unidentified; probably in the southeast, near Queçaltepeque. The two towns are listed next to each other on the tribute list, which does not necessarily indicate geographical propinquity, but sometimes it does; also they pay similar tributes (although Chancoate's are smaller), and both pay petates, which are mostly limited to this area and that of the northwest.

Chandelgueve/#82/50, under Diego de Alvarado and Juan de Astrogui. An unidentified town, but apparently on the coastplain. In 1554 the names of Diego de Alvarado and Juan de Astrogui did not appear, and its tributes were paid to Bernal Diaz and Francisco de Chavez. They had been reduced by 100 lbs. of maize to be planted, 50 lbs. of honey, and 20 xiquipiles of cacao (AGCA, p. 20).

Crespo in 1740 ( p. 10), reported a San Francisco Changüegüe that raised maize, beans, and cacao; but with an "infinity" of abandoned cacao groves nearby. Apparently the "infinity" became absolute sometime later: the settlement had disappeared.

Chichicastenango/# 125/400, under the minor son of Gaspar Arias. This important Quiché town—but with a name applied by Mexicans—is located at 2070 meters elevation (6791 feet: Dice. Geog.). A much sought prize, it was held by six encomenderos in the decade after its conquest (Kramer thesis, p. 199), the last of whom, Gaspar Arias, bequethed it to his minor son who held it in 1549. In view of its population, tributes were modest.

Chicuytlan/# 167/20 est. See comments regarding Alotepeque, #166.

In 1554 (AGCA, p. 6) Gonzalo Ortiz remained as its encomendero , but payments to him had been reduced by 14 large mats (petates),12 large mantas, 6 chickens (and those to be paid were to be "of the country", not European fowl), 25 lbs. of beeswax, and 300 lbs. of salt.

Chimaltenango and Atitlan# 155/125, under Leonor de Castellanos. Present Santiago Chimaltenango, at 2246 meters elevation (7369 feet) and San Juan Atitan.

Chimaltenango/#108/450 est., under Antonio Ortiz, as it had been in the late 1520s (Kramer, et al, '90, p. 14), and as it remained in 1555 but with changes in its tributes. Reductions of 125 lbs. of honey, 24 pieces of pottery, and perhaps 400 tostones (which had been paid in 1549 in exchange for 30 servants) were made in 1555; but 1,000 lbs. of beans were added (AGCA, p. 21). It is present Chimaltenango City.

Chipilapa/#42/10, under Juan de Aragon. It is now just north of La Gomera, southwest of Escuintla. In 1740 it was described as being hot, humid, sandy; and populated by thirty mulatoes ( Crespo, p. 11). Cortes y Larraz (Vol 11, pp. 244-45), thirty years later, described it as ladino and its products being maize, sugar, cotton, indigo (tinta), cattle, and much salt.

Chiquimula/#95/150. In the late 1520s, the tributes of this town were divided between Juan Gomez and Cristobal Rodriguez Picon (Kramer et al, '90, p. 16). In 1530 it was granted to Juan de Celada, a silversmith (Kramer thesis, pp. 125, 188) who held it in 1549. In the early seventeenth century, Pineda identified the town as "Chiquimula de Celada", and located it at the present site of Chiquimulilla (1908, p. 432). It was a Xinca town (Crespo, p. 13; Cortes y Larraz, Vol. II, pp. 219-20).

Juan Gomez is not listed in 1549. Rodriguez Picon, who had relinquished Chiquimula by 1530 perhaps acquired then the town of Nestiquipaque (#47) which may have appealed to that Spaniard, because it was a wheat producer. Its tribute of that crop was the highest paid by any town in the province.

Two other Chiquimulas were listed in 1549. They and their tributes are listed below:

		# 112/160, under Lorenzo de Godoy     and the minor daughters of                        Hernando de Chavez	# 126/400, under the minor son of Hernando de la Barrera
	Mantas	240	450
	Chickens	144	120
	Honey	50 lbs.	25
	Cacao	200 xiquipiles	160
	Fish	150 lbs.	0
	Mats	0	12
	Chili	0	150 lbs.
	Maize	800 lbs. planted	0

The total values of the above two payments are approximately equal, the greater payment of cacao of the first equaling the greater payment of mantas of the second.

Isabel Vargas, widow of Chaves, claimed in court that her husband had been given the town exclusively, but that Pedro de Alvarado afterward had given one half to Garcia Salinas who transferred his portion to Rodrigo de Almonte who, in turn, transferred it to Godoy (Rodriguez Becerra, p. 51).

In 1770, the bishop Cortés y Larraz (Vol I, p. 275), wrote that its land was suitable for all kinds of agriculture, ranging from cacao and sugar cane to wheat (suggesting the the municipal area also included high lands).

As there are now two Chiquimulas it might be assumed that each can be associated with one of the above sixteenth century tribute lists. One is in the valley of the Rio Grande de Zacapa, a right bank tributary of the Motagua River, at an elevation of 484 meters (1588 feet). The other, Santa Maria Chiquimula, is in Totonicapan province, above 2100 meters (6890 feet) in elevation.

Although cacao could not have been raised in the upland area, it was widely traded and could have been obtained, hut fish were almost alwavs associated with the coastplain. On the other hand, chili was generally associated with the upland. Considering these items it might be reasonable to identify #112 with the lowland and #126 with the upland.

But there is another—perhaps better—possibility: that both entries represented payments of the same lowland town which were divided approximately in equal total values, and any tributes paid by the upland town were included in those of the regional center, Totonicapan.

Chiquiotla/#83/3, under no identified encomendero. Location unidentified. Its sole payment: 450 lbs. of salt could place it either on the coastplain or near one of the salinas of the interior.

Cinacantlan/#31/100, under the minor sons of Hernando de Chaves. Now an aldea under Chiquimulilla. Two "short leagues east" wrote Cortés y Larraz (Vol II, p. 219). A Sinca (Xinca) town and a center of Quetzal feathers wrote Lehmann (pp. 729-30, citing Crespo and Juarros). Crespo (p. 13) reported that it raised cacao and pita (Agave?). Its tributes were 200 lbs. of maize planted, 80 xiquipiles of cacao, and 48 lbs. of fresh fish in Lent.

Ciquinala/#54/150.

Before 1529, Jorge de Alvarado had granted one half of the town's tributes to Francisco de Zebreros (Kramer et al, '90, p. 16). The other half is not mentioned. In 1549, all tributes were paid to Francisco Calderon. In 1555 it was listed as being under Gaspar Arias but with tributes considerably reduced because of excessive earlier demands (AGCA, p. 20).

Present Siquinalá, is west of Escuintla, at 337.58 meters elevation (1108 feet). Crespo described it as being hot, humid, and with many mosquitoes, and producing maize, and cacao. There were 85 inhabitants (p. 10). Thirty years later Cortés y Larraz wrote that Tziquinalá (Vol. 11, pp. 287-88) was an annex of Cozumalhuapam, with only 31 inhabitants, who were, apparently, raising sugar cane (there were four trapiches, i.e., sugar mills).

Citala/# 127/40. Granted in early years to Francisco Sanchez (Kramer et al, '90, p. 17) who held it in 1549. In about 1572 the name is mentioned as that of a town tributary to Sacapulas (Carmack, '73, Appendix xxi, pp. 392-94). It is not the Citalá located in present El Salvador.

Coatlan/#48/15 est, under Juan de Leon, Maldonado's business partner (Kramer thesis, p. 340). A coastplain town now extinct? It paid only cacao.

Coatlan/#49/5. Granted in early years to Francisco Sanchez by Jorge de Alvarado (Kramer et al, '90, p. 17), in 1549 it was listed as being under Francisco Sanchez Tamborino, presumably the son of the earlier grantee. This entry may refer to present San Sebastián Coatán, southwest of San Mateo Ixtatán, on a tributary of the Selegua River. Olaverreta in 1740 (p.20) described it as cold and humid. He reported that the inhabitants were travellers and traders, selling their wheat in Chiapas, and going to distant hot country to plant maize.

Sanchez Tamborino also held #93 Nema, present Nebaj (Lovell, '85, p. 98) near Sacapulas, and #101, Quelquel (unidentified). Both Nema and Quelquel exchanged servants for gold pesos, usually indicative of an interior position. (See #150, which could refer to the same town).

Coatlan/# 150/150 est., under the Crown. The payments, especially the high payment of honey, and the payment of maguey, suggest the highlands. Town #49 and Town #150 could be the same town whose tributes were unequally divided with a token payment going to Sanchez Tamborino and the large part to the Crown.

Present San Sebastián Coatán in the department of Huehuetenango, southwest of San Mateo Ixtatán, meets the requirements.

Coçalchiname/# 157/50 est., under the Crown. In 1554, also listed as being under the Crown (Cozalthiname: AGÇA, p.9), its tributes were reduced by 200 lbs. of maize to be planted, and 30 mantas . One addition was made: 12 chickens ("of the country"). The town is now unidentified. See Acatepeque.

Cocelutla/#76/20, under Santos de Figueroa. The encomienda of which this town was part included towns in the northwest, but also one town on the coastplain. Cocelutla's tributes, including herders, probably indicate the interior.

Cochumatlan/#159/300 est. Held in 1528 by Marcos Ruiz (Kramer, et al, '90, p, 13), it was shared in 1549 by his minor sons and Garcia de Aguilar. The entry refers to present Todos Santos Cochumatlan at 2481 meters elevation (8140 feet).

The size specified for the mantas: 2-1/2 varas (33"=1 vara) long and made of four piernas (a pierna is 3/4 of a vara, or about 25" wide) would indicate that they were about 82-1/2 X 100 inches in size.

Coçumtlan/#84/100 est. Held in 1528 by Marcos Ruiz (Kramer, et al, '90, p. 13), in 1549 under the minor sons of Antonio de Morales. The town is now unidentified. Perhaps it was near Casaguastlan (Acasaguastlan, in the Motagua River valley), half of which was in the same encomienda, and which also paid beans and fish.

The willingness of the encomenderos to exchange mantas for eight reales each was no generosity: ordinarily an exchange of mantas was for four reales each.

Colutla/#67/60, under the minor son of Gonçalo de Ovalle. Unidentified. MacLeod (p.117) suggests that the grant may have been made by Maldonado. The father had been allotted an encomienda with 860 tributaries, in three towns. One, Jacaltenango is in a valley of the highlands of the northwest, another, Tasisco, is a cacao-paying town of the southeastern lowlands. Colutla which paid salt, could have been in either section of the country.

Comalapa/#131/600. Held until 1530 by Ignacio de Bobaldilla (Kramer et al,'90, p. 14), it was, by 1549, under Juan Perez Dardon.

Present Comalapa, northwest of Antigua at 2115 meters elevation (6939 feet) was a well-populated and productive place or the important conqueror, Perez Dardon would not have taken it. The tributes that he received were not excessive — except for the trade of twenty servants for 150 gold pesos, exceeding the rate paid to any other encomendero. However his payments had been reduced materially from those paid to him in 1536-41. See the comparison of payments in the section dealing with that and other payments as discovered and published by Kramer,et al (1986, p. 367). They suggest that the amount of salt paid was an indication of the importance of the town as a trading center. They quote a 1562 source to the effect that the merchants of the city were energetic traders whose connections reached into much of the hot lowlands to acquire salt and cotton for exchange (ibid., note #51).

Comapa/#l 18/60 est., under Diego Lopez de Villanueva. Present Comapa, south of Jutiapa at 1250 meters elevation (4101 feet) was described by Crespo (p. 14) as being a Mexican-speaking town, cold and producing Maize and pita (Agave fiber). The inhabitants still make cordage from Agave fiber. That the natives were traders is indicated by their suggestion that fifty mantas and three servants be exchanged for twenty-seven xiquipiles of cacao.

Comiaco and Totonicapa/#24/80, under Pedro de Paredes. Comiaco is not now listed. Perhaps it was near the town now called San Cristobal Totonicapan? Paredes tributes are reasonable for the number of his tributaries although two plantings of maize in the one season at an elevation of 2330 meters (7644 feet) would be hazardous.

Comitlan/# 145/20, under the minor son of Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo. Unidentified. The payment of pottery could suggest the northwest. (Kramer, Lovell and Lutz '91, place it on their map in the position of present Comitancillo, NNE of San Marcos City.)

Conetla/# 165/150 est., under Gonçalo Ortiz. See comments regarding Alotepeque,#166. In 1554 it was under the same encomendero (AGÇA, p.9).

In the review of 1554 (AGÇA, p. 9) many reductions were made: 100 lbs. of maize to be sown, 10 , 26 chickens (European type), 75 lbs. of honey, 50 lbs. of beeswax, 800 lbs. of chili, and 1500 lbs. of salt. Two additions were made: 500 lbs. of dried beans, and 15 medium mats (petates).

Copulco/# 144/100 est, under Antonio de Paredes and Pedro Gonçalez Najara. Cubulco, about 15 kms. west of Rabinal, may be the place called Copulco in the list. The tributes were modest. Two out of three items were traded for gold pesos: aside from the gold only 48 chickens were paid .

Cozumaluapa. One half of the tributes of the town had been granted, in early years to to Gaspar Arias who received them until 1534 (Kramer, et al, '90, p. 17). By 1549 they were divided: entry #99/70, referred to one part, under Rodrigo de Salvatierra and Diego Lopez de Villanueva. Reductions in tributes paid to them in 1554 included 40 xiquipiles of cacao and possibly 80 tostones (for which they had exchanged 4 servants). In compensation it seems, they were paid the additions of 10 xiquipiles of pataxtle , 40 chickens (European type), 200 lbs. of chili, and 100lbs. of maize planted (AGÇA, p. 12). The other part, listed in entry #100/60, was paid to Garcia de Salinas who had been a servant of Pedro de Alavarado (Kramer, thesis, p. 240). Salvatierra and Lopez de Villanueva were paid 30 xiquipiles more cacao, and one more servant than was Salinas who had been allotted 10 less tributaries. The name of Salinas is not listed in 1554. His share had been allotted to Antonio Gomez who was to be paid 50 lbs. of maize to be sown, 20 chickens (European type), 40 xiquipiles of cacao, and 100 lbs. of chili. (AGÇA, p. 13)

The town that paid these tributes is marked by extensive ruins at the Finca El Baul about three kms. north of present Santa Lucia Cotzumalhuapa (Thompson, '48, p. 15).

Cuchil/#l1/30. Briefly under Diego Diaz, it was reassigned in 1531 to another encomendero (Kramer, et al, '90, p. 14). By 1549 it was under Francisco Lopez and Melchor de Velasco. It is now part of Nebaj ( Lovell, '85, pp. 80-81).

Cuylco/#88/290, under Hernando Gutierrez de Gibaja and Hernando Mendez de Sotomayor.

Present Cuilco, on the river Cuilco near the Chiapas border is in a deep, warm, fertile valley surrounded by rugged terrain. Because of the contrasts in elevations and climate of the area, the products range from sugar (the source of most profit), coffee, bananas, as well as chili, vegetables, grains—including wheat—also grazing lands for cattle (Dicc. Geog.).

Çacapa/#79/80, under the minor sons of Bartolomé de Molina. Another Çacapa, #110, also is shown as having 80 tributaries. It was under Juan de Chávez. The two entries probably represent an approximately equal division of the payments of one town. Present Zacapa is located at 185 meters elevation (607 feet), south of the middle Motagua River.

Çacapula. In the late 1520s, Jorge de Alvarado granted one half of this town to Juan Paez, whose minor sons inherited it. The other half, in those years, was allotted to Anton de Morales (Kramer et al, '90, p. 14) whose heirs—or their father—had exchanged their share for other—important—towns by 1549. The tributes of Çacapula in 1549, were evenly divided between the son of Juan Paez (#34/80), and Cristoval de Salvatierra (#38/80). The son of Juan Paez held the share in 1554 (AGÇA, p. 17) with reductions of 8 chickens, and, presumably, 14 xiquipiles of cacao that had been allotted in exchange for 5 servants. The other share was still under Salvatierra in 1554 (AGÇA, p. 8) but with reductions of 38 chickens, 1950 lbs. of salt, and, presumably the 14 xiquipiles of cacao that had been paid in exchange for 5 servants.

Sacapulas, a Quiché town at the foot of the Cuchumatanes Mountains is an ancient salt producer. Andrews ('83, pp. 89, 91) describes the process which he says has been carried on since pre-Spanish times in the same laborious way. Now, most of the product is used by nearby cattle ranches, but some, as a continuation of ancient trade, goes to regional markets.

Çacatepeque/#40/400 est. under Francisco de Monterroso. This man came to Guatemala in 1542 as a servant of Pedro de Alvarado. He married the widow of one of the conquerors. She was granted Santiago Zacatepeque with the proviso that she marry Monterroso (Kramer thesis, p. 333).

Çacatepeque/#46/700, under Bernal Diaz. Of the seven towns listed as Sacatepéquez on the modern map of Guatemala, four are Cakchiquel-speaking towns in the general area of Antigua. Two, San Lucas and Santiago, were probably in the encomienda of Monterroso. The other two, San Juan and San Pedro, probably in the encomienda of Bernal Diaz. The reasons for the conclusion are these: Bernal Diaz held, in 1579, as part of his encomienda, San Raimundo, northnorthwestward of present Guatemala City (Simpson, 1937), which was, according to Cortes y Larraz (Vol. II, pp. 83, 197-98) an annex of San Juan. Because the road was too steep for animals and human bearers had to be used, the encomendero was instructed to pay 30 cacao beans per carga for delivery of maize and wheat to the city (Antigua). The other two towns of the name (presumed to be under Monterroso) also were in country too steep for pack animals, but their payment for human carriers was smaller: 25 cacao beans per carga. It would seem that those towns were closer to the city than were those attributed to Bernal Diaz. Such is the case with San Lucas and Santiago. The other three towns now bearing the name Sacatepéquez, are considered to have been part of the encomienda of Francisco de la Cueva - entry #106 on the tribute list. See discussion of him and these towns in the chapter on the Encomienda .

Cacatepeque and Ostuncalco/# 106/2000, under Francisco de la Cueva (the rotundity of the number makes it suspect as does the size of the property).

In 1528 this important holding was under Don Pedro Portocarrero (Kramer et al, '90, p. 13). Later, it had been acquired by Martin de Guzman, Maldonado's brother-in-law. After his return from Spain in 1540, Alvarado arranged to pay an enormous sum— 4600 pesos—for the town. For remarks regarding these towns and the encomienda of this man see the comments regarding him in the chapter on The Encomienda and in the section regarding towns that were not noted in the tribute list.

Çapotitan/# 102/80, under Pedro Gonçalo Najara. This entry probably refers to present Zapotitlan, SSE of the city of Jutiapa. . Although it is located at 900 meters elevation (2953 feet), too high and too dry for cacao trees, it paid a tribute of 60 xiquipiles of cacao, acquired, no doubt, by trade. Such was also the case with its neighbors.Yupitepeque (#66 - present Yupiltepeque), seven kms. away, and Atescatenpa (#147 - present Atescatempa), about nine kms. away.

Çapotitan/#l17/1000. In the first assignment of encomiendas it was divided between Bartolomé Becerra and Hernando de Andrade (Kramer, thesis, p. 81). In 1528, the town was under Bartolomé Becerra (Kr., L. L. and Sw '90, p. 13). Either that record failed to record another holder or, by 1549 Becerra had relinquished part: the tribute list shows the town as being under Martin de Guzman and Bartolome Bezerra. Both of these men were important in the early affairs of Guatemala. Martin de Guzman was the brother of Alonso Maldonado, the president of the Audiencia and a member of the Salamancan nobility who had supplemented that influence by marrying the daughter of Montejo, the conqueror of Yucatan (Sherman, pp. 129, 136-39). Bartolomé Becerra was described by Fuentes y Guzman as one of the "valiant defenders" of Sacatepequez in the rebellion of 1526 (Vol. II, p.79). His daughter married Bernal Diaz del Castillo (op. cit. ,Vol I, p103). The listing of 1549 refers to present San Francisco Zapotitlán in the Quiché area (Thompson, '48, p. 9), which included under its jurisdiction present Mazatenango, San Martín Zapotitlán, and Cuyotenango (Garcés, pp.103, 382).

By 1555 both Martin de Guzman and Bartolomé Becerra had died. Their shares were inherited by the minor son of Guzman, and Juana de Saavedra, the widow of Becerra.

The reductions of 1555 were considerable: 600 lbs. of maize planted, 100 mantas (or perhaps 200. The addition of payments of the annexes is obviously incorrect in the document), 44 chickens, 50 lbs. of honey, and 200 xiquipiles of cacao (AGÇA, legajo 2797, exp. 40466, p. 18).

Çaqualpa/# 16/200. In early years, and until 1541 the town was under Diego de Monroy (Kr.L,L,and Sw '90, p. 16, Kramer thesis, p. 125). In 1542, Pedro de Alvarado granted it to his brother. Later, when other towns for his brother became available he granted it to his cousin, Alonso Castillo Maldonado (Kramer thesis, pp. 334, 340). No encomendero was listed in 1549. If the entry refers to present Zacualpa due east of Santa Cruz del Quiché on a left bank tributary of the Motagua River, at about 1500 meters elevation (4921 feet), cacao had to have been acquired by trade.

In 1554, the town was under a newcomer, Pedro de Robledo. The tributes of 1549 were reduced by the 300 lbs. of maize to be sown, 30 mantas, and 20 xiquipiles of cacao (AGÇA, p. 12).

Kramer suggests that it may be present San Miguel Escobar (thesis, p. 424).

Çaqualpilla/# 129/20. Granted to Francisco Sanchez by Jorge de Alvarado (Kramer et al, '90, p. 17), it remained as part of his encomienda at least until 1549. Now unidentified, but perhaps the trade of one servant for five gold pesos is an indication of an interior location: part of Zacualpa?

Çoloma/#10/40, under Diego de Alvarado and Juan de Astroqui. A cold site (Soloma) at 2274 meters elevation(7460 feet), about 40 kms. north of Huehuetenango City — but suitable for the tributes required: maize, mantas, chickens and herders.

Çunpango

The name appears in three entries: #58/200, under the Crown,  #59/(200 -assumed) under Juan Alvarez, #169/200 (assumed) under the Crown.

	Tributes	#58	#59	#169
	Maize	6	5	50,000 lbs.
	Wheat		6
	Beans	1
	Chickens	72	72
	Cacao	50		80 (xiq's)
	Servants		(7)

Present Sumpango is about twelve kilometers north of Antigua, at 1900 meters (6234 feet) elevation. In the tribute list town #58 is described as being close "to the city" (i.e. present Antigua). It is suggested that the Indians may, "of their own volition" deliver the maize and beans to "the city" as the road is too steep for animals. For town #59 the same suggestion is made regarding the wheat. Payment was to be thirty cacao beans per fifty lb. carga. The seven servants of town #59 were exchanged for twenty xiquipiles of cacao. The 50,000 lbs. of maize of town #169 would represent a planting of five fanegas (500 lbs.).

The assumption made here is that the tributaries of the town were divided approximately equally, which would suggest a total of 600. That figure would be reasonable—at a time of diminishing populations—in comparison with the figure of 465 in the year 1561 (See Lovell, Lutz, and Swezey, 1984, table 2). The situation is somewhat confused by the fact that towns #58 and #59 were recorded in early April 1549 while town #169 is dated November 24, 1551. The later entry apparently represented a correction of tribute payments in favor of the Crown.

Guaçacapan/#68/400. In the first assignment of encomiendas the town was put under Juan Munoz de Talavera, a name not listed in 1549. Perhaps he had died by1528, for at that time probably, Jorge de Alvarado granted it to Juan Gomez, who, in the late 1530s sold it to Pedro de Alvarado (Kramer et al, '90, p. 15). It was later, apparently, expropriated by the Crown. In 1549 its Indians planted 200 lbs. of maize for tribute and paid 600 xiquipiles of cacao.

Modern Guazacapán is located at 261 meters (856 feet) elevation, in southeastern Guatemala. Shook and Gillen report that part of the modern town is still Indian and "remains almost unchanged since the Spanish conquest."

Gueguetenango/#17/500, present Huehuetenango, was, in 1549 under Juan del Espinar, one of the conquerors of Mexico and Guatemala. He held it as early as 1525 and—with a brief interlude —until his death in the 1560s (Kramer et al, 1991, p. 271). According to Pedro de Alvarado, with whom he quarelled, he was "a lowly man.........a tailor" but "he had a good horse" (op. cit., pp. 269-70). That, by literal translation would have made him a caballero, a person of status, but apparently such was not the case.

As Wendy Kramer has pointed out, it was "unusual that a known artisan, probably unmarried, without any claim to exceptional services in the conquest, and with no family ties to any of the governors, managed to become such a wealthy and prominent encomendero" (Kramer, theses, Chap 9, pp. 354 et seq., particularly p. 384).

Nevertheless, his part in the conquests of Mexico and Guatemala could not have been negligible. The fact is shown by the 1525 grant to him by Pedro de Alvarado of the important city of Huehuetenango . But later, after they quarreled, Alvarado wrote disparagingly of him and, in 1530, the encomienda was taken from him and granted to Francisco Zurrilla; but it was returned to Espinar in 1531.

On the whole, tributes paid to him seem, in view of the number of tributaries, to have been comparatively small (see Chap no. 2). He was paid relatively few mantas and no cacao. But that record may not be a proper indication of his receipts. He was paid merchantable surpluses of comestibles: maize, beans, chilis, and salt. Payments of those were the highest or among the highest of the province. The same was true of planted cotton. Yet more important were his profits from gold and silver mines near his encomienda (Kramer, thesis, pp. 361, 379).

The large amount of salt paid in tribute was acquired from Çacapula.

Gueymango/#28/100, under Bartolome Reynoso, the widower of Isabel Godines. It is one of two entries of the same name. The other, no. 44, was listed as being under Garcia Lopez. Early records indicate that the two entries refer to one town (Crespo, 1935, p. 12; Fuentes y Guzman, Vol.1, pp. 79 ff). Present Guaymango, in the district of Ahuachapan, El Salvador, was, at the time of the tribute lists, under Santiago de Guatemala. In the mid-sixteenth century, the tributes of the town were unequally divided between Reynoso and Garcia Lopez (see town #44/50). The unequal division was made perhaps because each encomendero held two towns and the total payments for each man were in keeping with the respective tributary totals.

Joanagaçapa/#7/20, under Bernal Diaz. The sole payment was twenty xiquipiles of cacao. Present Guanagazapa, at 325 meters (1066 feet) elevation, southeast of Escuintla, is a ladino town with few natives. It is considerably larger than was the native town held by Bernal Diaz.

Joxutla/#45/37, under Garcia Lopez. Joxutla's tributes were of the same items, only of somewhat lesser quantities than those of Gueymango which is to be expected  in view of the respective numbers of tributaries. Also the encomendero had planted a cacao grove and the Indians of this town were obliged to "cultivate the cacao milpa in the pueblo". Present Jujutla is located at 420 meters (1378 feet) elevation, about five kilometers from present Guaymango.

Jumaytepeque/# 105/75 est., under Francisco de la Cueva (spelled Jumaytepeque in the border gloss but Zumaytepeque in the body of the text). Present Jumaytepeque, in the department of Santa Rosa, is at an elevation of 1815 meters (5955 feet), northeast of Cuilapa. If this was the town under Cueva, one wonders why he wanted it, an unimportant town at least 150 kms. away from his major holding of Çacatepeque and Ostuncalco.

In 1528, the town was under Alonso Gonzalez Naxara and Sebastian del Marmol. Alonso was, presumably, the father of the man listed as Pedro Gonçalo Najara in 1549. According to a document of 1543 cited by Fowler (p. 246) Alonso was eaten by the inhabitants of the town. Sebastian died about 1540 (Kr. L. L. and Sw. '90, p. 15). In 1549, Pedro Gonçalo Najara held other towns (see #102, and #144).

Los Esquipulas/#151/150 est., under the Crown. In the east, near the Honduras border.

Luquitlan/#57/300, under the minor sons of Anton de Morales and Pedro de Çavallos. Its payments of cacao and exchange of servants for cacao suggest a lowland position; perhaps with extensions into the uplands for other tribute payments. It may have been in the Motagua drainage: the heirs of Morales also held a part of Çacaguastlan (#103) in that region. The name Luquitlan does not appear on modern maps.

Morales and Çavallos (Ceballos in the 1554 record: AGÇA, p. 8) were still the encomenderos in 1554. Reductions in 1554 from the tributes of 1549 were the following: 100 mantas , 42 doz. eggs, 50 lbs. of honey, 200 lbs. of chia, and 5 xiquipiles of cacao (from the direct tribute of 60 xiquipiles plus 15 received in exchange for 6 servants in 1549).

Macagua and Mecameos/# 120/100, under Francisco Calderon. Mecameos is unidentified: probably it was absorbed by Maçagua. This entry and another Maçagua, #128, under Santos de Figueroa, one of the conquerors of Guatemala with Pedro de Alvarado, apparently referred to the same town, the tributes of which were shared by Calderon and Figueroa. Masagua, a name applied to several settlements in Central America, in this instance refers to the town southsouthwest of Escuintla. It was founded about 1544 by merging several scattered settlements of Pipiles (Thompson, '48, p. 8). In 1554 (AGÇA, p.2) Mazagua was listed as being under Santos de Figueroa. Pineda, a few years after the date of the tribute list, referred to it as being part of the encomienda of the widow of Figueroa (p. 428). In the first half of the eighteenth century, Crespo noted that the language was "Mexican". He also noted that to the Indian population Mulatoes had been added, (p. 11). Calderon, a Maldonadoan, had been allotted part of the tributes of the town. He held two other cacao-paying towns, Siquinala (#54), west of Escuintla, and Tacuscalco (#121). From the three towns he was paid 630 xiquipiles of cacao, the fourth largest payment of that item in Central America. MacLeod describes him as being "a powerful private individual", whose income was one of the largest in the area (pp. 111, 117).

By 1554, apparently, he had died. Siquinala, then was recorded as being under Arias (AGCA, p. 20), and Maçagua under Santos de Figueroa (AGÇA, p. 2).

Malacatepeque/#78/80, no encomendero shown. Until 1541 it was held by Diego de Monroy (Kramer et al, '90, p. 16). The 1549 payment of fish suggests a coastal location (all identified towns of the province of Santiago that paid fish were coastal).

Mascote/#l 13/150 est., under Bartolome Marroquin. Unidentified. Its tributes suggest an upland location; perhaps upslope from Ahuachapan, in present El Salvador which was held by the same encomendero.

Miaguatlan/#123/6. In early years it was granted by Jorge de Alvarado to Francisco Lopez (Kramer et al, '90, p. 17). In 1549 he shared it with the minor son of Juan Paez. It paid cacao and nothing else.

Pedro de Alvarado reported being at "Miaguaclam" after having been in Acaxual (Acajutla) and Tacuxalco (Tacuscalco)(Cortes Society, p. 81). Kelly locates Miaguatlan at about one half mile from Sonsonate (p. 146; and see notes regarding Tacuscalco, #121).

Misco/# 134/160, under Gonçalo de Alvarado. Present Mixco, west of present Guatemala City, was established after the destruction of the former Mixco - now Mixco Viejo - in 1525. The former town had been a capital of the Pokoman "nation" (Coe, '80, p!41), probably founded in the thirteenth century . At the time of the conquest, it was an important military fortress and trading center and was the focus of about 10,000 Indians living on the surrounding slopes (Bruce Hunter, pp. 206 ff). Andres de la Mezquita held it until 1546 (Kramer, thesis, p. 189).

Motolcintla/#90/138. In present Chiapas. See Amatenango.

Moyutla/#30/250, under Juan Resino. Present Moyuta, in the hills northeast of Pasaco at 1283 meters elevation (4209 feet), in southeast Guatemala. Crespo identified it as a Pupuluca town, with saltmakers (p. 15). Their ancestors probably worked salinas on the coastplain not many kilometers to the south of the settlement.(Andrews identifies such areas on his page 73). Its 1549 tributes included a payment of 900 lbs. salt.

Mustenango/#l 14/450. In 1530 it was held in part by Diego Diaz (Kramer et al, '90, p. 14). In 1549 it was held entirely by Juan Perez Dardon.

Present Momostenango, is at 2235 meters elevation (7382 feet). Cacao obviously was brought in from the lowland, Indians exchanging other of the goods for it. For further discussion of Perez Dardon see the section regarding The encomienda.

Nancintla/#26/30, under Alonso Hernandez, and continued to be at least until 1554, when the tribute of 200 lbs. of maize planted was eliminated, but that of 90 xiquipiles of cacao remained (AGÇA, p. 3). Nancinta, which at the time of the Spanish conquest was a Xinca town (Crespo, '35, p. 13), is now an aldea of the municipio of Chiquimulilla (Pineda Pivaral, p. 30). Rubio Sanchez (p. 40) and Sherman (p. 23) identify the town with Nacendelan, a name that does not appear on the tribute lists, but which was located between Taxisco and Pasaco, and was very large according to Lehmann (p.727) who was quoting Alvarado. At one time it was in another location nearby, but no remnant of that structure presently exists (Pineda Pivaral p. 134).

Naolingo/#70/200, under three encomenderos: Gomez Diaz de la Reguera received one half of the payments, Juan de Guzman received one quarter, as did Francisco Lopez. The sole payment by the town was 685 xiquipiles of cacao. In 1575 Diego de Guzman, presumably the heir of Juan, still received one quarter of the payment of cacao; but it had been increased to 250 xiquipiles. Vazquez de Coronado, a Salamancan, as was the president of the Audiencia, arrived in the 1540s (MacLeod, p. 86). His Salamancan connections made him the recipient of valuable properties in the New World. He had been allotted the half of the payments formerly paid to Diaz de la Reguera. The other quarter had been transferred to one Gernan Gonçalez, the husband of Beatriz de Escobar, who may have been the heir to the estate of Francisco Lopez (Naolingo, 1575). In 1770, the bishop, Cortés y Larraz listed "Naulingo" as being under the ecclesiastical control of Caluco (Vol. I p. 80). Present Nahulingo is near Sonsonate in El Salvador.

Nema/#93/35. In early years under Francisco Sanchez (Kramer et al, '90, p. 17), by 1549 it had been placed under his son, Francisco Sanchez Tamborino. It is present Nebaj, northwest of Sacapulas (Lovell, '85, p.98).

Nestiquipaque/#47/ 150 est., under Cristobal Rodriguez Picon. Present Santa Anita (Nistiquipaque), part of the municipio of Santa Maria Ixhuatán. Payments to the encomendero included 15 fanegas of sown wheat, 1250 lbs. of beans, and some maize, mantas, blouses, chickens and honey. Also paid were six xiquipiles of cacao which according to Pineda (p. 453) it obtained, as it did cotton for mantas and blouses, by trade. He described its location as being on a mountain above Guacaçapan.

Niquitlan# 156/20, under Leonor de Castillanos. (Kramer, et al, '91 "Fire in the Mountains, p. 17, identify it as San Pedro Necta).

Nopiçalco/#33/100 est, under Isabel Godines, the widow of Bartolome Reynoso. It paid 150 xiquipiles of cacao and 300 lbs. salt. Barón Castro indicates that it no longer exists, but that it was in the area of "the Izalcos", that is, present southwest El Salvador ( p.579)

Nytla/#56/155, under the minor daughter of Juan Duran, who possibly held it before 1530 (Kramer et al, '90, p. 14).

Present Asunción Mita? That town was once Pipil, according to Stoll but was taken over—reclaimed? by the Pokomames (1938, p.2). Its sole payment was 280 xiquipiles of cacao. The elevation of 470 meters (1542 feet) is suitable to the product.

Ocotenango/# 124/50, under the minor son of Gaspar Aleman who (the father) was granted it in early years (Kramer, et al., '90, p. 16), and the son continued to hold it at least until 1554 (AGÇA, p. 14). At that time there were reductions of 20 mantas (from 50 that included 30 in exchange for two servants), and 100 lbs. of chili. There was no reference to servants.

Present San Bartolomé Jocotenango, south of Sacapulas, on a tributary of the Chixoy River: a Quiché town.

Oçuma/#l 15/40, under Andrea de Rodas, a servant of Jorge de Alvarado who granted the town to Rodas in early years (Kramer et al, '90, p. 16). It may be present Usumatlan on the Motagua River, about 10 kms. east of San Cristobal Acasaguastlan. In 1554 (AGÇA, p. 4) tributes had been reduced by the elimination of eggs and fish. Ten xiquipules of cacao were added. Servants (three of which had been exchanged for forty tostones in 1549), were not mentioned.

Ostuncalco and Cacatepeque. See Çacatepeque.

Paçaco and Tototepeque/#60/40, under Antonio de Salazar. Present Pasaco (indigenous "Paxa"; at 150 meters elevation: 492 feet.) in Jutiapa province. Crespo (p. 15) and Cortes y Larraz (Vol I, p.58) identified it as a Pupuluca town. Tototepeque is unidentified.

Pajacis/#l 19/30 est., under Diego Lopez de Villanueva. Interesting, in the tributes of this town, is the item of 200 feathers that were paid in direct tribute and another 200 in exchange for an allotted two servants. Cortés y Larraz wrote that the Indians of Çumpango--which did not list feathers among its tributes— spent a large amount of money for feathers to use in their fiestas (Vol II, p.79). Perhaps they obtained them from Pajacis? The town is not identified, but its tributes suggest position in the southeast.

In 1554 (the town of "Xequicic"), was under Lopez de Villanueva, but changes had been made in tributes: the item of 50 lbs. of maize to be planted was eliminated. Servants (that had been exchanged for 200 feathers) were not mentioned. There was an addition of 10 xiquipiles of cacao.

Petapa/# 160/300. In early years the town was assigned to Perez Dardon but was removed from his encomienda in 1530 (Kramer et al, '90, p. 17). At that time, probably, it was placed under the control of Francisco de Castellanos, the treasurer of the colony, but it was removed from his control by Alvarado in 1535. By 1549 it had been placed under the Crown.

It is situated at 1360 meters elevation (4462 feet) between present Guatemala City and Lake Amatitlan. The cacao, paid in tribute was obtained, no doubt, by trade. (Gage in the early seventeenth century reported it to be a large town with a large trade: 1958, p. 201).Wheat, also paid, may have been planted on lands controlled by the town on slopes above.

Petatan/#l/35 est. Held in 1528 by Gonzalo de Ovalle (Kramer et al, '90, p. 12), who by 1549 had relinquished it for other, more important towns. In 1549 it was under Diego Sanchez Santiago.

This aptly-named town paid, among other things, 100 petates. It is now the aldea of that name in the municipio of Concepción in Huehuetenango, located near the Chanjón River, SSW of Jacaltenango.. The name is also applied to an archaeological site in the same municipio.

Pinola/#l37/100, under Martin de Guzman, who by 1555 (AGCA, p. 17.), had died and was succeeded by his son, Juan Maldonado de Guzman. The name of the town appears only once in the list; but it appears three times on the modern map: Santa Catarina Pinula, at 1580 meters elevation (5184 feet), virtually at the edge of modern Guatemala City, San José Pinula, about nine kilometers from Santa Catarina, at 1850 meters elevation (6070 feet), and San Pedro Pinula, in Jalapa province, at 1097 meters elevation (3599 feet), eastnortheast of the city of Jalapa. Because of their propinquity, Santa Catarina and San José may have been considered as a unit in payment of tributes; and the total of the two (plus annexes?) was made to Guzman. The payments of San Pedro Pinula were probably subsumed under the tributes paid by Xalapa (Jalapa), #161, to Graviel de Cabrera.

In the revue of tributes in 1555 (AGCA p. 17), paid to Juan Maldonado de Guzman, the son of Martin de Guzman, maize planting was reduced by 100 lbs., and honey by 25 lbs. The 6 servants noted in 1549 are not mentioned.

Queçalcoatitan/#9/20, under Alonso de Luarca, to whom it was granted in 1528 (Kramer et al, '90, p. 15). Ponce (Vol I, p. 404) places it about in the place of present Salcoatitan (in modern El Salvador), which has an elevation of 1045 Meters (3428 feet). For the payment of cacao the natives would have traded other goods. The total payments were heavy for twenty tributaries. The explanation may be in a combination of payments made by this and the other town held by Luarca (see #37, Yçapa).

Queçaltenango/#91/200. It was granted by Jorge de Alvarado, probably in 1528 (Kramer et al, '90, p. 15), to "Ynancio" (Ignacio) de Bobadilla, whose minor childrem held it in 1549. In 1554 (AGCA, pp. 10,11) it was reported as being under a minor  daughter. At that time the tributes had been reduced by 30 mantas, 50 lbs. of honey and, possibly 150 tostones (which, in 1549, had been paid in exchange for 10 servants).

Another entry of the name Queçaltenango, #138/800 est., under the Crown, is also listed in 1549 and in 1554 (AGÇA, p. 10). At the latter time payments had been reduced by 200 mantas and 50 lbs. of beans to be planted. As there is no suggestion in the literature that there was more than one town of the name it can be assumed that a relatively small part of the tributes of one town were paid to the heir of Bobadilla and the greater payment to the Crown. The elevation of 2333 meters (7654 feet) precludes a plantation of cacao, but Garcés, in 1570 (p.382), refers to the estancias of San Felipe and San Luis under Quezaltenango of the Crown, in both of which cacao was grown. Pineda, in the same period of time, also referred to San Luis, and other cacao towns that were subject to Quezaltenango (p. 436).

Although the number of tributaries allotted to the Crown is not shown, it was probably about the same as that of Totonicapan: the tributes paid are precisely the same for each town. (See Queçaltenango, no. 138, and Totonicapan, no. 122).

Queçaltepeque/#52/20 est. (also see #92/24, and #135/90).The three entries for this name probably represent the same town, divided between Velasco, Larios, and Cristobal Lobo, in unequal parts. The present town, in the department of Chiquimula, is situated at 650 meters elevation (2133 feet), southsoutheast of the town of Chiquimula, in the relatively dry east of Guatemala, in the drainage of the Zacapa River. The name in Nahuat means Mountain of the Quetzales but no feathers appeared on the tribute list. It may have been a center of trade where they were handled .

The payments to Velasco of cacao, salt, and fish could have been acquired by exchange, or by the town controlling lands in the lowlands, not far away. The four servants allotted to Larios, in entry #92, were the sole payment for his part of the town. They were exchanged for 80 tostones. The larger number of tributaries and larger tributes were shown under town #135, in the encomienda of Cristobal Lobo.

Quelquel/#l01/10. Granted in early years to Francisco Sanchez by Jorge de Alvarado (Kramer et al, '90, p. 17), by 1549 it was under his son, Francisco Sanchez Tamborino. The town, is now unidentified.

Its tributes were minor. The one servant being exchanged for 5 gold pesos may suggest the interior, north of the young volcanics.

Quiaguistlan/# 140/20, under Francisco Lopez and Gomez Diaz de la Reguera. Mentioned by Fuentes y Guzman as one of the productive villages of the valley of Sacatepéquez (Vol II, p.66). Now unidentified.

Suchitepeque

In the early 1530s, Suchitepeque was shared by three Spaniards: Juan Luis, Cristobal Lobo, and Gaspar Arias (Kramer thesis, p. 191). The name of Juan Luis does not appear on the 1549 list. That of Cristobal Lobo does, but with other towns. The minor son of Gaspar Arias had inherited a share.

The name of the town appeared on the tribute list of 1549 three times: numbers 39, 87, and 97. The following tributes, were paid:

	#39/160	87/est. 400	#97/286
Held by	sons of Garcia de Escobar	Gutierrez de Gibaja, and Mendez de Sotomayor	minor son of Gaspar Arias
Dates of Entries	4/5/49	4/26/49	4/26/49
Maize	8	2	3
Mantas	--	300 (exchanged for 75 xiquipiles of cacao on 7/12/49)	200 (exchanged for 50 xiquipiles of cacao on 7/12/49)

Chickens	96	48	48
Honey	75	50	50
Cacao	--	500 (plus 75.  See above)	450 (plus 50.  See above),
Fish	—	75	—
Servants	12 (exchanged for 60 gold pesos on 9/14/49)	—	—

It would seem that the tributes of San Antonio and Santo Domingo Suchitepeque were combined and divided according to the decision of the authorities.

The payments to the minor sons of Garcia de Escobar were relatively small and included no cacao or mantas —items avidly sought by powerful men. The minor sons of Escobar apparently were being remembered for the achievements of their father, but lacked the political weight of the other encomenderos involved with these towns.

Entry no. 87, with an estimated 400 tributaries, was later called San Antonio Suchitepéquez. In 1555, it was under two new encomenderos : Pedro Hernandez Montesdoca (who had acquired the share of Gutierrez de Gibaja), and the minor son of Hernan Mendez, who had inherited that of his father, Mendez de Sotomayor (AGÇA, p. 17). Reductions of 1555 were material: payments of planted maize, honey, and fish were eliminated, chickens were reduced from 48 to 36. Mantas (300 of which had been exchanged for 75 xiquipiles of cacao) were not mentioned, and the original figure of 500 xiquipiles had been reduced to 450 (making a total reduction of 125).

In 1570, Garcés (Carmack, '73, p. 380) reported on San Antonio "of the encomienda of Juan Mendez de Sotomayor and Francisco de Ayllon" (who had replaced Pedro Hernandez Montesdoca). Garcés described the area as being "rich in cacao", a fact demonstrated by the payments made.

Vazquez de Espinosa, two generations later, reported that the alcaldia mayor exported quantities of cacao in an active trade with Mexico City and all of New Spain (1942 ¶ 638).

Suchitepeque/no. 97/286, under the minor son of Gaspar Arias.

This entry refers to Santo Domingo Suchitepequez. In the 1555 review of the tributes paid by "Suchitepeque Nagualapa" (AGCA,p. 19), the town was listed as being under Gaspar Arias (no reference to "minor sons"). Several items of payment were reduced: 300 lbs. of planted maize, 12 chickens, 25 lbs. of honey, and 150 xiquipipiles of cacao (including 50 paid in exchange for 20 mantas). One addition was made: 50 xiquipiles of pataxtle (the inferior type of cacao). 

Garcés, in 1570, refers to San Juan de Nagualapa in the encomienda of Gaspar Arias de Avila as "the richest town of this coast, and of all the land", because of its cacao (Garcés, pp. 380-81).

Tacolula/# 104/30, under the minor sons of Garcia de Escobar and Juan Alvarez. It was a Xinca-speaking town (Lehmann, p.727), that Cortés y Larraz reported to have been big until the beginning of the eighteenth century (Vol. II, pp. 232 ff). The bishop also reported that it was three leagues west of Taxisco and that the priest was ill, the territory was "inundated" by mosquitoes, sand-flies, blood-sucking spiders (talajes), and other pestiferous insects, as well as dangerous animals. Maize was sown twice a year but the harvest was so poor that it hardly merited the labor. The remains of the settlement of Tacuilulá are in the municipio of Taxisco.

Tacuba/#32/100, held in 1528 and until his death in 1540 by Sebastian del Marmol (Kramer, thesis, p. 124). By 1549 it had been placed under Francisco de la Cueva. Tacuba WSW of Ahuachapan in present El Salvador, is probably the town in the encomienda of Cueva. It is too high for cacao, but that payment could have been obtained by exchange. The Indians of Cueva's town were instructed to send twenty men twice a year, for four days each time, to the pueblo of Yumaytepeque (present Jumaytepeque) to work with the wheat. As the towns are about forty miles apart, they would be gone not only the eight days each year, but probably that many more in transit. Yet nothing is said about food for those Indians, which was required in similar cases with other towns and encomenderos. Two conditions may have militated against the matter of food in Cueva's case: he was a most important encomendero, and the tributes from this town with 100 tributaries consisted of only one item: eighty xiquipiles of cacao, a low payment.

Tacuscalco/#121/100, under Francisco Calderon. Pedro de Alvarado mentioned "Tacuxalco" as a place he passed through after leaving Acajutla going toward the interior of present El Salvador (Alvarado, 1924, p. 81), and from there through Miaguaclam (op. cit, p. 83), which was located somewhat north of east of present Sonsonate (Termer, '54, p.7; Gómara, p.319). The town no longer exists, but Barón Castro wrote that it did exist as late as 1823. If so, it may have been moved from an earlier location because he described its remnants as being one kilometer south of Sonsonate (p. 126, n. 127).

Tasisco/#81/300, under the minor son of Gonçalo de Ovalle (whose father had received it from Jorge de Alvarado in 1528: Kramer, et al, '90, p. 12). In December 1554 (AGCA, p. 15), it was reported as being under Lope Rodriguez de las Varrillas "a minor son" (of whom it doesn't say). There was no such name on the tribute list of Santiago in 1549. The tributes of 1549 were reduced in 1554 by eliminating all but the payment of 400 xiquipiles of cacao. Pineda, in the last half of the sixteenth century, adverted to its several annexes (p. 431). Crespo (pp. 12-13) reported it as being on the flanks of Mount Nextiquipaque (presumably Tacuamburro). It was a Xinca-speaking town (Lehmann, p. 727). Present Taxisco is located at 214 meters elevation (702 feet), apparently moved from the earlier location reported by Crespo, which may not have been suitable for cacao. Perhaps the present town is at the location of one of the several annexes reported by Pineda.

Tecoaco/#51/40, under the minor sons of Bartolome de Molina, who continued to hold it at least until 1554 (AGÇA, p. 4). At that time the tribute payments were reduced by eliminating payments of chickens, fish, and 30 xiquipiles of cacao, leaving a payment of 30 xiquipiles . It was a Xinca town (Crespo, Thequaco, p. 14), and is present San Juan Tecuaco, in Santa Rosa Province, at 475 meters elevation (1558 feet), east of Chiquimulilla.

Tecocistlan/# 146/600, under the Crown. Part or all of the town was held by Pedro de Alvarado in early years, but by1528 by Baltazar de Mendoza and Gaspar Arias. In 1535, when Mendoza died, his part reverted to Jorge de Alvarado who, even earlier had received the part of Arias (Kramer et al, '90, p. 16). By 1542 one half of it was held by Gonçalo Ortiz, but removed from his control during his absence in Spain during that year and in 1544 it was under the Crown (Kramer thesis, p. 320). But Ortiz had been compensated: by 1549 he held four other towns that paid him several items convertible into cash: honey (the highest payment in the province), salt, chili, and beeswax.

It is present Rabinal at 972 meters elevation (3189 feet). Remesal reported that it was only after some difficulties with the Indians that Bartolomé de las Casas and Father Pedro de Angulo arranged for the transfer of natives from other settlements to what ultimately became Rabinal (1932, Vol. 1, p. 212). Pineda, about 1557, referred to "Tequecistlan" as being very large, but less than one half of its former size. He also reported that cotton was raised and from the harvests, heavy mantas were made to be sent to "the Ycalcos" where they were used to contain cacao for transfer to Mexico (p. 446). Six hundred mantas were paid in 1549.

Gage, in the first half of the seventeenth century, referred to it as being a large, fine town with 800 families of Indians. It was warm, he wrote (p. 210). Cortés y Larraz referred to it as being hot and dry; but with large plantings of maize, and with other crops, including sugar cane, and cattle . He was struck by its lovely situation in a flat valley (Vol II. pp. 26 ff).

Tecpanpuyumatlan/#12/150, Under Pedro de Bozarraez (his only town). 500 lbs. salt, and 60 mats (petates), and herders may suggest the northwest. Kramer, Lovel and Lutz, '91, identify it with Santa Eulalia, southsoutheast of San Mateo Ixtatán.

In June 1554 the tributes were reduced by 80 mantas (in 1549 the payment of mantas was listed as 150, but by exchange of 3 servants 50 more were paid). In 1554 (AGCA, p. 7) the total was reduced to 130, nothing was stated regarding servants, 300 lbs. of salt, 30 mats (petates).

Teguantepeque/#72/35 est., under Pedro de Ovid. The payment of 50 xiquipiles of cacao hardly suggests a "great town of Tehuantepeque" as described by Fuentes y Guzman (cited by Thompson, '48, p. 8). A document of 1678 contains an account of the disappearance of the Pipil-speaking settlement of Tehuantepeque (Carmack '73, p. 206); and the Diccionario Geografico indicates that San Miguel Teguantepeque disappeared in 1599 when its last vecinos moved to Santa Lucia Cotzumalguapa (Vol. II, p. 260).

Tepemiel/#86/25, under Diego Diaz, to whom it was granted in 1530 (Kramer thesis, p. 188). It paid cacao, chickens and fish. Probably a coastal settlement. Now unidentified.

Tequepanatitan/# 142/1000. After the conquest, it was passed back and forth between Pedro and Jorge de Alvarado until 1541 (Kramer thesis, p. 81). In 1549 it was under the Crown.

Present Sololá at 2113.50 meters (6934 feet) elevation. Garcés reported that the towns of cacao reached from those of the Crown under Tecpan Atitlán to those of Santa Catalina (present Retalhuleu) of the encomienda of Francisco de la Cueva (p.380).

Tequepanguatemala/# 143/400, under Alonso Marroquin—as it remained in 1555 (AGCA, p. 16). Now, east of Sololá at 2287 meters elevation (7503 feet), near Iximché, the former Cakchiquel capital. The tributes of 1549 were reduced in 1555 (AGCA, p. 16), by 200 lbs. of planted maize, 100 lbs. of planted beans, 150 mantas, 72 chickens, 104 doz. eggs, and 25 lbs. of honey. The only item unchanged was that of 300 lbs. of chili. However, there is the matter of servants, which are not mentioned. In 1549, Marroquin had been allotted ten which he exchanged for 60 gold pesos . That payment may have been eliminated.

Tetechan/#41/50, under Alonso Larios, who was probably granted it by Jorge de Alvarado. Modest tributes were paid. It may be identified with Tectitán on the latitude of Huehuetenango City, about ten kms. from the Chiapas border. The problem with this identification (but not a denial) is that the encomendero's other two towns—Queçaltepeque and Utlacingo—were far away in the southeast of the province.

Texutla/#27/120, under Gonçalo Alvarado and Pedro de Çavallos. There is a Tejutla in the Mam area of the highlands, but the town numbered 27, probably was another of the same or similar name, in the lowlands, where cacao could be grown and fish taken.

Tezcuaco/#73/35 est., under Pedro de Ovid who probably acquired it in 1524 (Kramer thesis, p. 82). It paid 50 xiquipiles of cacao, and 200 lbs. of salt. Crespo (p. 11) described it as being level, hot, with 6 Indians and 150 mulatos who raised maize, cotton, and cacao. Cortés y Larraz wrote (Vol. 11, Sect. 112) that it was an annex of Don Garcia (now La Democracia - about 50 kms. southwest of Escuintla). The Diccionario Geografico lists Texcuaco as an archaeologic site in the municipality of La Gomera (south of La Democracia).

Present Texcuaco is about eighteen kms. westsouthwest of La Gomera.

Tipiaco/#21/50, under Luis Perez (his only holding). Unidentified. Simpson, ('37,p. 102) says Bernal Diaz later held a town of that name. In 1548 it paid small tributes including 30 xiquipiles of cacao, plus 10 more in exchange for four servants, also 25 lbs. fish. A lowland town, now gone.

Totoapa/#l53/60, under the Crown. Unidentified. Concepción Tutuapa at about 2100 meters (nearly 7,000 feet) north of San Marcos, a Mam town connected with the rest of its province only by mule trails. The tributes paid in 1549 were fitting to it, except for twelve xiquipiles of cacao. That could have been obtained by trade.

Totonicapan/# 122/800 est., under the Crown. This entry would have referred to the present highland city of Totonicapan, which, soon after the conquest was placed under the control of Diego de Rojas, but by 1526 had been taken into the encomienda of Pedro de Alvarado (Kramer thesis, p.81). After his death and that of his widow, it was put under the Crown. The number of tributaries in 1549 is not stated but the number of mantas may be an indication, even though that statistic is not necessarily dependable in Guatemala. In this case it seems reasonable: another important settlement under the Crown, Tecocistlan (Rabinal), recorded 600 tributaries and it paid 600 mantas. In 1583, a report stated that Totonicapa with its "subjects" had a tributary population of 823 (Relación 1583).

Whatever the tribute population may have been in 1549, it apparently was diminished by 1554. At that date tributes were materially reduced: the planting of 600 lbs. of maize was eliminated, as was the planting of 50 lbs. of beans, Also 1,000 lbs. of chili listed in 1549 did not appear in 1554. The item of 240 xiquipiles of cacao was reduced to 200, and that of mantas from 800 to 400 (AGCA, p.5).

Uçumacintla/#71/60. Held in early years by Pedro de Olmos, by 1531 it was under Marco Ruiz ( Kramer et al, '90, p. 15) who, apparently, relinquished it for another holding: in 1549 his sons held Cuchumatlan (no. 159) with about 300 tributaries. On that date, Melchor de Velasco held Uçumacintla--as he did in November 1554 (AGCA, p. 13), when his tributes were reduced by 100 lbs. of planted maize, 30 mantas (in 1549 he was allotted 30, but was paid 50 more by exchange for 4 servants. In 1554 he was to be paid 50), 10 mats (petates).

It is now part of San Pedro Necta on a small tributary of the Selegua River (Lovell, '85, p. 98).

Another listing of the name, #154/40 under the Crown, probably represents a portion of the tributes of the same town. The payments are congruent with the tributary populations shown.

Uspantlan/#13/100 est. Held, in 1526 and until he went to Peru, by Diego de Rojas (Kramer thesis, p. 82, Kramer et al, '90, p. 12). In 1549 it was under Santos de Figueroa.

On modern maps, the town of Uspantan is just south of the Cuchumatanes in Quichédepartment, at 1837 meters elevation (5563 feet). The archaeological site nearby may represent the town that was taxed.

Utlacingo/#141/8 , under Antonio Paredes and Alonso Larios. Its payments of cacao and salt indicate a location on the coastplain. Fowler identifies it with present Otacingo (p. 181).

Vyztlan/#3/45. under Francisco Lopez. Kramer (Thesis, p. 423) identifies this town with Santa Ana Huista in Huehuetenango department. No salt was listed in the tasaciones but 100 petates were paid, a tribute payment typical of the northwest.

Xacaltenango/#4/500. under the minor son of Gonçalo de Ovalle, was in 1529 under his father (Kramer et al, '90, p. 12).

In 1549, it paid a long list of tributes and of a wide variety, including some unique to it, e.g. jackets (Xicoles), breechcloths (Mastiles), and palm containers (Chicobites).

Present Jacaltenango is at 1438 M. 4718 feet) elevation, but the canyons nearby are hot - suitable for crops such as cotton. As an example of unlisted "anexos", Cortés y Larraz (Vol 1, p. 129) referred to one "Guista" and three other towns with saints' names which now are associated with the name Huista, as annexes of Jacaltenango. None of them appear on the tribute list except possibly Vyztlan (See above).

Xalapa/#161/1000, under Graviel de Cabrera (so it is given in the text. In the caption the given name is Grabiel). Present Jalapa, in a very fertile valley, at 1362 meters elevation (4469 feet) is a producer of a variety of agricultural products. In 1549 the tributes paid were relatively modest in view of the number of tributaries. The only large item— 1100 mantas which was reduced to 900 in 1552—were to be made from the harvest of ten planted fanegas of cotton. That planting would have produced more than the necessary lint.

In 1554, Cabrera was not listed (AGCA, p. 15. The new encomenderos were listed as Alonso Idalgo and Diego de Vibar, whose combined tributes included an increase of 400 lbs. of planted maize and 200 pairs of sandals (alpargatas), but with reductions that included the surplus of cotton, beyond that necessary for the tribute of mantas , paid in 1549 (the amount to be planted in 1554 is not mentioned). Mantas were reduced from 900 to 600 (A description of the size of the mantas is given, but il may be inaccurate. In it the width is that of the large mantas of Santiago and Yucatan, but the length is given as 5 varas which would be over two feet longer than those of Yucatan and the large ones of Santiago. The figure for length probably should have been given as 4 varas , which would make them comparable to those of Yucatan and the large ones of Santiago.) Other probable reductions were 25 lbs. of honey, 50 lbs. of beeswax. The chili required in 1549 was eliminated in 1554.

Xicalapa/#98/60. Granted by Pedro de Alvarado soon after the conquest to Francisco Calderon, who relinquished il when he went to Peru (Kramer thesis, p. 191). In 1549 it was listed as being under the minor son of Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo.

Now unidentified, Garcés in 1570 described the town as being near the sea and distant from other towns of the distlrict; and very hot and unhealthy, but the richest of the cacao towns (p. 381) (thus contradicting his statement regarding San Juan Nagualapa). Nine years later, Estrada y Niebla described its position as being on the coast of Zapotitlan, 1-1/2 leagues from the sea, "where the Rio Quiquiçat (Tiquisate?) disemboques The presenl town of Tiquisale is on a tribulary of Ihe Nahualate River that disemboques about 91°, 32" west). The document further stales that the town was not of "citizens", that all people there were cacao merchants (pp. 68, 73). The uniqueness of its nearly seaside location is shown in the fact that it was the only town in the province of Santiago that required the services of fishermen (3 days per week): not fishermen, but quantities of fish were specified by other towns.

Xilotepeque/#94/500, under Juan de Chaves. Present San Martin Jilotepeque at 1786 meters elevation (5860 feet), northnortheast of the city of Chimaltenango. Tributes were few and low except for the exchange of fifteen servants for twenty seven tostones each, the highest rate paid in the province.

Xilotepeque/#l 11/160, under Cristobal and Lope Lobo. Present San Luis Jilotepeque. Two other towns in the encomienda of Cristobal Lobo-- Queçaltepeque and probably Chancoate were in the southeast. The three towns paid similar and proportionately comparable payments.

Xitaulco/#l 52/40, under Antonio de Salamanca. The encomendero held three towns that are now in El Salvador. This unidentified town was probably on the coastplain in the area that, in 1549, was held by the encomenderos of Santiago.

Xocotenango/#55/100, was granted in early years to Diego Sánchez Ortega and held by him into the 1540s (Kramer et al, '90, p. 15), but his name does not appear in 1549 when the town was under the minor sons of Anton de Morales.

Present Jocotenango, three kilometers north of Antigua at 1450 feet elevation is called by Fuentes y Guzman "the pueblo y minas of Jocotenango". Among other minerals the mines may have yielded some gold, indicated by the exchange of four servants for twenty pesos of gold by the sons of Morales. Another Xocotenango on the 1549 lists, #130/120, was part of the encomienda of the minor son of Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo. It paid 180 mantas, 12 xiquipiles of cacao, and three servants, which were exchanged for 7 xiquipiles of cacao. The total values of the respective payments of these two towns are approximately fitting to the numbers of tributaries. It seems reasonable to believe that the payments made to the son of Rodriguez Cabrillo were part of those paid by Jocotenango, north of present Antigua. The tributes paid by present San Bartolomé Jocotenango, about twenty kilometers NNE of Santa Cruz del Quiché, at about 1500 M (4921 feet), were probably subsumed under those paid by another town, perhaps Santa Cruz.

Xuayoa/# 149/60, under Antonio de Salamanca. Present Juayua is located northnortheast of Nahuitzalco, at 1,000 meters elevation (3281, feet) in El Salvador. Another of the Pipil towns, it procured cacao to pay in tribute by exchange: its situation is not suitable to grow it.

Xutiapa/#61/80, under Antonio de Salazar. Present Jutiapa, capital of Jutiapa province in southeast Guatemala, at 906 meters elevation (2972 feet). In 1549 the town paid maize, beans, chickens, honey, mats (petates ), 12 pairs of sandals (cutaras ), and 4 servants which were exchanged for 20 large mantas. In addition, the Indians were to clean and cultivate a cacao plantation, which must have been downslope in a zone where cacao was possible; but it could not have been at great distance as there is nothing mentioned about the Indians being fed while there.

Yçalco/#62/(400?). In 1528 it was divided between Antonio Diosdado and Diego Lopez (Kramer et al, '90, pp. 13, 14). In 1541, Diosdado's widow, Margarita de Orrego, was granted the half (Kramer thesis, p. 296). In 1549 the division was between the post-conquest immigrants Juan de Guzman cousin of Maldonado (Kramer thesis, p. 332), and Francisco Giron. This entry represents the part of Juan de Guzman. Its tributes were 120 chickens and 1,000 xiquipiles of cacao.

The assumption of 400 tributaries may be gratuitous. It is the number shown for the other part of the town, no. 63, under Francisco Giron. But it is also possible that 400 was the total number of tributaries of the town and their products were divided between the two encomenderos.

Yçalco/#63/400, the part of Francisco Giron. Its tributes were exactly the same as those of #62 above.

Kramer (thesis, p. 425) believes that that town is present Caluco.

Yçapa/#37/160, under Alonso de Luarca who had been granted it in 1528 by Jorge de Alvarado (Kramer et al, '90, p. 15). It has been identified by at least two scholars as being present Santo Domingo de Guzman (Barón Castro, '78, n.5 on p. 612; Browning - his #12, present Santo Domingo de Guzman); but it is impossible to relate the items of tribute paid by Yçapa, #37 on the tribute list, with the position as identified by those authors.

Certainly wheat could not have been grown at that elevation. No towns in the area paid pottery. Nor did any pay mats (petates). Another fact would seem to exclude it from the area of "Los Izalcos": ten servants were exchanged for 150 tostones. Among the towns in that area listed in legajo 128 no exchanges were made. A further fact would seem to be conclusive: instructions for this entry were "as the road is too steep for animals, the Indians may, if they wish, carry the maize and wheat to the city for payment." Obviously the town was in a rugged area, in the region of "the city", i.e. Santiago de Guatemala. A more likely identification is that of present San Andrés Itzapa. whose location meets the physical requirements of the tribute payments.

Yçatepeque The name is entered twice on the tribute list: #64/60, the part of Juan Alvarez, one of the conquerors; and #65/60, the part of the Crown. The town is unidentified, but it was near "the city" (i.e. Santiago), in country too rugged for pack animals. The Indian bearers—"by their own choice" could carry the maize harvest to the city for payment of thirty cacao beans per carga of a maximum of fifty lbs.

Yçuatlan/#80/100, was held in the late 1520s by Alonso Cabezas (Kramer et al, '90, p. 13), but it was under Juan de Aragon in 1549.

It is present Santa María Ixhuatán (Fowler, pp. 53, 163). The fact that 6 servants were exchanged for plantings of maize and wheat may indicate that the town was at an elevation where wheat would be satisfactorily grown, which would eliminate the possibility of cacao growing there; but that could have been obtained by trade as it was by its present subordinate village Santa Anita (then, Nestiquipaque). Pottery, which was paid as tribute in 1549 is still an important product of the village.

Ystalavaca #162 (l/2)/100, under Juan de Leon Cardona. This entry and the next, #163 (l/2)/100, under Francisco de Chaves, refer to one town, divided between two encomenderos, a town that is unidentified now. The fact that pottery was paid may suggest that it was north of the high mountains of young vulcanism.

Ystalavaca e Çamavaque/# 107/850. Ystalavaca was granted in about 1533 to Juan Lopez, a new migrant (Kramer, thesis, p. 191). He was the encomendero in 1549.

That the two pueblos were considered to be one for the exaction of tribute, is indicated by such phrases as "the pueblo of Ystalabaca e Çamavaque" and "the natives of the said pueblo". Garcés in 1570 reported that the two towns were "three gunshots" from each other (p. 381), which, in view of the range of sixteenth century guns suggests close proximity. His reference was to San Pablo, indicating present San Pablo Jocopilas.

Juan Lopez, probably a Maldonado appointee, was still in control in 1555 (AGCA, p. 21), when he collected the same amount of cacao, chickens, chilis, and honey and was even paid an additional 12 mats (petates); but reductions included all plantings of maize, beans, wheat, and the 80 doz eggs that were specified for payment in 1549. By 1570 he was no longer listed and Garces reported that the town of Zamayaque was in the encomienda of Alonso Gutierrez de Monzon (Carmack Appendix XVIII). He compared its territory unfavorably with that of Suchitepequez, saying that the soils thinned out and were less productive for cacao as one went west from Suchitepéquez. The tributes paid present a problem of interpretation, particularly wheat. In most cases, if wheat were paid in tribute it indicated a highland position; but it is possible that Lopez insisted upon wheat and was able to do so effectively even though it involved considerable transport labor.

Ystapa/#23/4, which paid the Crown sixty xiquipiles of cacao and 600 lbs. of salt, may represent part of the town that is also entered under the number #36/25, (Iztapa) in possession of the minor son of Gaspar Aleman, who received 20 mantas , 600 lbs. of salt, and three servants.

Present Iztapa is at the seashore, SSE of Escuintla. Pineda reported it as a "port", hot but healthy (yet he also reported that so many Indians had died that labor for the cacao plantations was lacking - pp. 427 ff). Crespo referred to it as a "salina" where salt was gathered and fishing thrived, (p.11).