The following list of writings on Spanish history concentrates on those in English on the period since the eighteenth century. Fortunately much of the best work on Spain in this period has been published in English. A few recent studies in other languages are included because of their importance. Many books provide comprehensive bibliographies, and those with bibliographies that seem most useful are marked with an asterisk (*). Those available in paperback editions are marked with a double asterisk (**). I have attempted to bring this list up to date for the present edition.

General

There are two recent brief histories of Spain written by the leading French and Spanish historians of Spain. ** * Jaime Vicens Vives, Approaches to the History of Spain, trans. Joan Connelly Ullman (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967), is an extended essay on the dominant questions of Spanish history, stressing the period before 1500, with a critical discussion of the major interpretations. ** Pierre Vilar, Spain, a Brief History, trans. Brian Tate (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1967), originally written for the "Que sais-je?" series, is excessively brief, but it is an excellent survey, especially of the period since 1814. Older but more readable than either of these is ** J. B. Trend, The Civilization of Spain (London: Oxford University Press, 1944), most of which deals with the period before 1700. The author was professor of Spanish literature at Cambridge University.

A longer one-volume study by Jaime Vicens Vives is * An Economic History of Spain, trans. Frances Lopez-Morillas (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1969), which covers Spain's history from prehistoric times to 1900. It was first published in 1955; this is a translation of the third edition [290] of 1964, revised by Jorge Nadal Oiler, one of Vicens' best pupils. Despite its title it is a broad social history, and it is good on the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. To supplement it, Jorge Nadal Oiler has summarized current knowledge of Spanish demographic history in La Poblacion española: siglos XVI a XX (Barcelona: Ediciones Ariel, 1966). Stanley G. Payne covers the full past of the Iberian countries in * A History of Spain and Portugal (2 vols., Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1973). He seeks more to be comprehensive than interpretive, with an emphasis on political history and briefer parallel sections on socio-economic and cultural developments.

Spanish historians and publishing houses delight in elaborately illustrated multi-volume histories of Spain. Vicens Vives headed the group that has produced the best one to date: * Jaime Vicens Vives et al., Historia social y económica de España y America (4 vols. in 5, Barcelona: Editorial Teide, 1957-59; reissued in 1961 in five vols. as Historia de España y America). It covers Spain and Spanish America down to 1936 and includes good sections on recent Spanish political history, written by Vicens himself. A good part of its value lies in its maps, graphs, and illustrations. Ramon Menendez Pidal, ed., Historia de España (Madrid, Espasa-Calpe, 1947- ) is planned to be the most inclusive and authoritative history of the country. How much the great medievalist had to do with the enterprise beyond lending his name and writing the introduction is hard to tell. Twelve tomos have appeared, some in more than one unwieldy volume, but the only one past 1600 is Vol. XXVI, La España de Fernando VII, by Miguel Artola Gallego (1968). Menendez Pidal's introductory essay to Vol. 1 on the nature of Spaniards and their historical evolution, written in the tradition of the Generation of 1898, has been translated: ** The Spaniards in Their History, trans. Walter Starkie (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 1950). Starkie gives a biographical sketch of Menendez Pidal and a bibliography of his writings.

More modest but better for the average reader will be the "Historia de España Alfaguara," planned in seven volumes, each by an outstanding Spanish historian. Basically structural rather than narrative in approach, it stresses cultural, economic, and social history. ** * Volume III, El Antiguo Regimen: Los Reyes Católicos y los Austrias by Antonio Rominguez Ortiz, and ** * Volume V, La Burgesia revolucionaria (1808-1869) by Miguel Artola, have appeared (Madrid: Alianza Editorial, 1973).

Medieval and Habsburg Spain

Early in this century Roger Begelow Merriman wrote what is still the only work to treat the domestic history of Spain from the Middle Ages to the end of the sixteenth century systematically in its setting as the center of a vast empire in America and central Europe: The Rise of the Spanish Empire in the Old World and the New (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1918-1934, reprinted New York: Cooper Square Publishers, 1962). Merriman is [291] a good raconteur, and his volumes still bear reading, although they are out of date for social and economic history.

Gabriel Jackson has recently provided us with a brief, readable, and beautifully illustrated survey of the Spanish Middle Ages through the reign of Ferdinand and Isabel, ** * The Making of Medieval Spain (New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1972). He emphasizes the achievements and conflicts of the major religious groups. Vol. I of Merriman's Rise of the Spanish Empire is good for narrative and institutional history of medieval Spain, while Vicens Vives, who began as a medievalist, furnishes a brief, interpretive account of this period in his Approaches. Americo Castro has formulated a controversial but now classic interpretation of the Spanish Middle Ages, which traces the origin of the Spanish character to this period (see above, page 31). The first English version of his work is The Structure of Spanish History (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1954), which he modified and extended in The Spaniards: An Introduction to their History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971). These are heavy going, but he has summarized his ideas in an article: "The Spanish People," in Image of Spain (see below), pp. 1-14. For the Moslems in Spain there is ** W. Montgomery Watt and Pierre Cachia, A History of Islamic Spain (New York: Doubleday Anchor Books, 1967).

Three leading scholars, two English and one Spanish, have recently published good surveys of the Habsburg period. ** * J. H. Elliott, Imperial Spain, 1469-1716 (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1964) is an unusually broad and penetrating brief history. John Lynch, Spain under the Habsburgs (2 vols., Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1965-69) provides a fuller treatment especially of the seventeenth century and the empire. Antonio Domínguez Ortiz, The Golden Age of Spain, 1516-1659 (New York: Basic Books, 1971) * is oriented toward a structural analysis of society, economy, the state, and cultural institutions as is his volume in the "Historia de España Alfaguara" (see above).

Spain's decline in the seventeenth century has long intrigued historians. Summaries of the various explanations are in Vicens Vives, Economic History, pp. 411-55 (see above), and J. H. Elliott, "The Decline of Spain," Past and Present, no. 20 (Nov. 1961), pp. 52-75, reprinted in ** Trevor Anston, ed., Crisis in Europe, 1560-1660 (New York: Doubleday Anchor Books, 1967), 177-205. John Elliott looked more closely at the domestic aspects of the crisis in The Revolt of the Catalans: a Study in the Decline of Spain (1598-1640) (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1963). How much the Inquisition was at fault has long been argued. The latest book in English on the Inquisition, ** Henry Kamen, The Spanish Inquisition (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1965), reviews the question. Kamen's view that the body served to uphold the power of the aristocracy is both novel and debatable.

[292] Eighteenth Century

Unlike Habsburg Spain, Bourbon Spain of the Old Regime lacks a brief comprehensive history. One must be content with studies of specific aspects. Henry Kamen, The War of Succession in Spain 1700-1715 (Bloomington: University of Indiana Press, 1969) describes the political, social, and economic structure of Spain and shows how the war transformed it. My own ** The Eighteenth Century Revolution in Spain (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1958) deals with the apogee of the Enlightenment and economic advances under Charles III and the disruptive effects of the French Revolu-. tion. Two stimulating articles are Raymond Carr, "Spain," (i.e., the nobility of Spain) in ** A. Goodwin, ed., The European Nobility in the Eighteenth Century (London: Adam and Charles Black, 1953), pp. 43-59, and David R. Ringrose, "Transportation and Economic Stagnation in Eighteenth Century Castile," Journal of Economic History, XXVIII (1968), 51-79. The full development of Ringrose's argument appears in his Transportation and Economic Stagnation in Spain, 1750-1850 (Durham, N. C.: Duke University Press, 1970), which provides a new understanding of the prerequisites in transportation for an industrial revolution. The first two chapters of Can's Spain 1808-1939 (see below) survey the structure of eighteenth-century Spain.

One must turn to other languages for the major recent works on this century. * Jean Sarrailh, L'Espagne éclairée de la seconde moitié du XVIII^e siècle (Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1954; Spanish trans., Mexico: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1957) is the outstanding study of the thought and organizations of enlightened Spaniards. Antonio Elorza considers their social and economic philosophies in greater detail in La Ideología liberal en la Ilustración española (Madrid: Tecnos, 1970). The last two volumes of * Pierre Vilar, La Catalogne dans I'Espagne moderne (3 vols., Paris: S.E.V.P.E.N., 1962) deal with the eighteenth century. The second, on population and agriculture, is especially rewarding. (Vol. I has a good essay on Catalan-Castilian relations since 1814, as well as a survey of Catalan history before 1700). I have reviewed this and Elliott, The Revolt of the Catalans (see above) in Revista de Occidente, No. 26, May 1965, 207-28. Antonio Do-minguez Ortiz, one of Spain's finest contemporary historians, in La Sociedad española en el sigh XVIII (Madrid: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, 1955) gives an excellent picture of the towns and countryside of Castile but is weaker on the prosperous north and east. The economic historian, Gonzalo Anes, in Las Crisis agrarias en la España moderna (Madrid: Taurus, 1970), seeks to understand the difficulties of Spain's rural economy of the eighteenth century through an investigation of the fluctuations of prices, harvests, and population. His keen analyses shine through a sometimes difficult text. Anes has also collected six articles on other aspects of agriculture and politics at that time in Economía e 'Ilustración' en la España del [293] siglo XVIII (Barcelona: Ariel, 1969). Marcelin Defourneaux, Pablo de Olavide ou I'Afrancesado (1725-1803) (Paris: Presses Universitaries de France, 1959), a biography of one of Charles Ill's most radical servants, includes the best account of that ruler's first period of reforms, 1766--73. Trasmundo de Goya (Madrid: Revista de Occidente, 1963), by the American scholar Edith Helman, is a unique form of intellectual history built around the literary inspirations for Goya's "Caprichos" of 1799. On this subject she has published in English "The Elder Moratin and Goya," Hispanic Review, XXIII (1955), 219-30; "The Younger Moratin and Goya: on Duendes and Brujas," ibid., XXVII (1959), 103-122; and "Padre Isla and Goya," Hispania, XXXVIII (1955), 150-58.

Two eye-witness accounts of Spain at the end of the century are still capable of bringing it to life for today's reader. One is by an English clergyman, Joseph Townsend, A Journey through Spain in the Years 1786 and 1787 (3 vols., London: C. Dilly, 1791). The author of the other, Joseph Blanco White (pseud. Don Leucadio Doblado), Letters from Spain (London: H. Colburn, 1822), was a Spanish priest who abjured his faith and fled to England in 1809. He gives an inside picture of both provincial and enlightened society highly spiced with anticlerical sentiments. Letter III is an autobiography of his youth.

1800-1939

Most histories of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries in Spain have been written to explain the background and causes of the Civil War. They stress those aspects that are important for the final outcome rather than for the period itself, and as a result there has been no adequate account in English of the period until the recent publication of * Raymond Carr, Spain, 1808-1939 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1966). While still dominated by the vision of the Civil War, it explains the confusing political history of the preceding century and a quarter in a comprehensible manner and gives extensive original descriptions of social and economic evolution, but it fails to integrate political and social history satisfactorily. (See my review cited in note 20, p. 282). The bibliographical essay is excellent. C. A. M. Hennessy's short ** * Modern Spain (Historical Association pamphlet No. 59, London, 1965) provides a rundown of major events since 1868 and a good bibliography. An older work that still can be read with pleasure and profit is Salvador de Madariaga, Spain (first published New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1930; enlarged to cover the Republic and Civil War, London, 1942 and again brought up to date, New York: Frederick Praeger, Inc., 1958). By a minister of the Second Republic who later became a professor at Oxford, it is a classic study of the end of the constitutional monarchy and the Republic. Madariaga, a follower of Giner de los Ríos, blames the extremist parties of both sides, and also King Alfonso XIII, for Spain's sorrows. Another witness of the Civil [294] War to search for its origins is A. Ramos Oliveira in Politics, Economics and Men of Modern Spain, 1808-1946, trans. Teener Hall (London: Victor Gollancz Ltd., 1946). He is a partisan of the Socialists, and his later sections become a defense of that party in the 1930's. He has a forceful interpretation of the nineteenth century, suggestive but to be read with caution and in conjunction with Carr and the last volume of Vicens Vives, Historia económica y social, which is one of the finest accounts of the period.

The one book that all persons interested in contemporary Spain should read is ** * Gerald Brenan, The Spanish Labyrinth: an Account of The Social and Political Background of the Civil War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1943). An Englishman long resident of Spain, Brenan describes the different social problems and political movements of the half-century before the war so perceptively that most later studies, including this book, have been under his pervasive influence.

Foreigners have left vivid descriptions of the country, and Thomas F. McGann has shown how revealing they can be, even when colored by their own predispositions, by collecting some of their best passages in Portrait of Spain (New York, Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1963). Of the authors whom McGann has selected, I recommend full reading of ** Washington Irving, The Alhambra (1832), George Borrow, The Bible in Spain (1843), and John Hay, Castilian Days (1871); and I would add to his list Richard Ford, Gatherings in Spain (1846).

Priceless for following the political evolution of this period is Arnold R. Verduin, ed. and trans., Manual of Spanish Constitutions, 1808-1931, Translations and Introductions (Ypsilanti, Mich.: University Lithoprinters, 1941). It gives the full text of all constitutions in English, but it appears to have been published in a small edition and may be hard to come by.

Nineteenth Century

Virtually neglected until the last decade, the nineteenth century is now being studied by many excellent historians, who are rapidly expanding our knowledge and offering new interpretations of the period. Gabriel H. Lovett, Napoleon and the Birth of Modern Spain (2 vols., New York: New York University Press, 1965) covers the military events of Spain's war with Napoleon and the political and ideological conflicts around Joseph Bonaparte and the Cortes of Cadiz. It is well written but fails to look at the social structure of Spain which makes the conflicts understandable. My own "Good, Evil, and Spain's Rising against Napoleon," in Richard Herr and Harold T. Parker, eds., Ideas in History (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1965), pp. 157-81, describes the last years of Charles IV's reign and gives a new explanation of Spain's revolt. The Spanish authority on the period is Miguel Artola, who has written the volume on Ferdinand VII in Menendez Pidal's Historia de España, and that on 1808-1869 in the "Historia de España Alfaguara" [295] (see above). The latter is a masterful piece of synthesis and interpretation, to my mind the best starting point on nineteenth century Spain.

At the time of the Revolution of 1854 Karl Marx wrote a series of newspaper articles on Spain during the first half of the century which can still be read with interest, both because of the author and for their information. They are included in Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, Revolution in Spain (New York: International Publishers, 1939). Eric Christiansen, The Origins of Military Power in Spain, 1800-1854 (London: Oxford University Press, 1967) and Raymond Carr's earlier article "Spain, Rule by Generals," in Soldiers and Governments, ed. Michael Howard (London: Eyre & Spottis-woode, 1957), both treat a central aspect of nineteenth-century history (Carr goes to 1931). Edgar Holt, The Carlist Wars in Spain (Chester Springs, Pa.: Dufour Editions, 1967) is by a devotee of nineteenth-century wars rather than of Spain, but it provides a useful and pleasant account of both the Carlists and the intrigues around Isabel II. John Fagg, "Isabel II and the Cause of Constitutional Monarchy," in Herr and Parker, Ideas in History (see above), pp. 239-65, deals with the causes of her failure as a queen. V G. Kiernan, The Revolution of 1854 in Spanish History (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1966), is adequate but uninspired.

The Revolution of 1868 and the First Republic have received better treatment. C. A. M. Hennessy, The Federal Republic in Spain: Pi y Margall and the Federal Republican Movement, 1868-1874 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1962) paints Pi y Margall as the intellectual and political leader of the period. Joseph A. Brandt, Toward the New Spain (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1933), studies the same years but defends the centralist Republican Castelar as the only person capable of saving the Republic from the confusion introduced by Pi and the federalists. Both books concentrate on political history. Miguel Martinez Cuadrado provides an analytic survey of the politics of the period from the Revolution of 1868 to the Second Republic in Elecciones y partidos políticos de España (1868-1931) (2 vols., Madrid: Taurus, 1969).

The various other political and cultural movements have received uneven treatment. A delightful work on the founders of the Institución Libre de Enseñanza and their circle is J. B. Trend, The Origins of Modern Spain (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1934; reprinted New York: Russell & Russell, 1965). Alberto Jimenez-Fraud, "The 'Residencia da Estu-diantes,'" in Image of Spain (see below), pp. 48-54, gives an eye-witness account of the atmosphere in which they lived. Gabriel Jackson's article "Joaquín Costa: Prophet of Spanish National Recovery," The South Atlantic Quarterly, LIII (1954), 182-92, is the result of extensive study of this attractive figure. John Lynch has written on the intellectual leader of the Catholic opposition, "Menendez Pelayo as a Historian," Bulletin of Hispanic Studies, XXXIII (1956), 187-201. The Andalusian anarchists have a romantic attraction for many lovers of Spain. The chapter on them in ** E. J. Hobsbawm, [296] Primitive Rebels: Studies in Archaic Form of Social Movement in the 19th and 20th Centuries (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1963), pp. 74-92, is largely drawn from Brenan's Spanish Labyrinth (see above) but sets the anarchists into a wider European pattern. In marked contrast is Gabriel Jackson's article "The Origins of Spanish Anarchism," which is hidden in The Southwestern Social Science Quarterly, XXXVI (1955-56), 135-47. He makes a fine case for Andalusian anarchism being a quasi-religious movement growing out of Spain's past. The most full and recent work, Clara E. Lida's Anarquismo y revolution en la España del XIX (Madrid: Siglo XXI de España, 1972), argues instead that early anarchism was a logical response to worsening conditions. It is a detailed study of the early leaders, their international affiliations, and heritage from republican secret societies.

Vicens Vives' Economic History of Spain and Carr's Spain, 1808-1939 give good surveys of the social and economic history of the nineteenth century. The fullest study of the society is contained in the last volume of Vicens Vives' Historia de España y America. Recently Spanish historians have done much to reveal the evolution of their country's economy during this period. Many of their articles have appeared in the economic journal Moneda y Crédito (Madrid), edited by Gonzalo Anes. Another source of their work is two volumes published by the Servicio de Estudios del Banco de España: El Banco de España, una historia económica (Madrid, 1970), mostly a history of Spanish banking, but with articles by G. Anes and Jorge Nadal on the economy of Spain, 1782-1829 and 1829-1929; and Ensayos sobre la economía española de mediados del siglo XIX (Madrid, 1970), including G. Anes on agriculture, R. Anes on foreign investments, and J. Nadal on the iron industry. Slightly older are two collections of previously published articles: J. Vicens Vives, Coyuntura económica y reformism burgués (Barcelona: Ariel, 1968) (note especially the article from which the book gets its title and another on "Industrialización y desarrollo económico, 1869-1917"); and Nicolas Sanchez-Albornoz, España hace un siglo: una economía dual (Barcelona: Ediciones Peninsula, 1968), which deals with prices, food supply, mining, and banking. Its introduction offers an innovative interpretation of Spain's nineteenth century economy as "dual," split between a subsistence agricultural sector and a capitalistic industrial sector. Complementing this is his "El Trasfondo económico de la Revolución [of 1868]," in Clara E. Lida and Iris M. Zavala (eds.), La Revolución de 1868: Historia, Pensamiento, Litera-tura (New York: Americas Publishing Co., 1970) (a collection of articles by different authors). Jordi (Jorge) Nadal uses the concept of the "dual economy" to organize his penetrating survey, ** * "The Failure of the Industrial Revolution in Spain, 1830-1914," in Carlo M. Cipolla (ed.), The Fontana Economic History of Europe, Vol. IV (2) (London: Collins/Fontana, 1973), 532-626, which makes available in English the recent findings of Spanish historians. Nadal argues that Spain's "failure" arose from a lack of native capital to invest in productive enterprises, largely the effect of mistaken [297] government policies. This interpretation is elaborated by Gabriel Tortella, "Spain, 1829-1874," in Rondo Cameron (ed.), Banking and Economic Development, Some Lessons of History (New York: Oxford University Press, 1972), pp. 91-121. Tortella's material is drawn from his fuller study, Los Orígenes del capitalismo en España: banca, industria y ferrocarriles en el siglo XIX (Madrid: Tecnos, 1973).

Other materials in English on the subject include Rondo E. Cameron France and the Economic Development of Europe, 1800-1914 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1961), which is informative on foreign investment (especially pp. 248-75 on Spanish railroads). S. G. Checkland, The Mines of Tharsis: Roman, French and British Enterprise in Spain (London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd., 1967), is a case study of foreign exploitation since ancient times, but the emphasis is on the nineteenth century. David R. Ringrose, Transportation and Economic Stagnation in Spain, 1750-1850 (see above) deals in part with the first half of the century.

Early Twentieth Century

The last decades of the constitutional monarchy and the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera receive good treatment in the books listed above under 1800-1939, notably Brenan's. The period also is central to several specialized studies. *Stanley G. Payne, Politics and the Military in Modern Spain (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1967), goes from 1814 to the present but centers on the period 1898-1939, and provides about the only study in depth of the years 1917-1931. E. Allison Peers, Catalonia Infelix (London: Methuen & Co. Ltd., 1937) is a history of Catalonia since the Middle Ages, and it is best on the Catalan nationalist movement in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. (Vilar offers a more profound analysis in La Catalogne dans I'Espagne moderne, I, 131-65; see above.) *Juan Linz, "The Party System of Spain: Past and Future," in S. M. Lipset and Stein Rokkan, eds., Party Systems and Voter Alignments (New York: The Free Press, 1967), pp. 197-282, covers roughly from 1910 to 1936. Its detailed analysis of elections offers a key to the politics of the period.

The turn of the century, with which Brenan opens his account, has found its historian in Joan Connelly Ullman, whose The Tragic Week: a Study of Anticlericalism in Spain, 1875-1912 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1968), is a study not only of anticlericalism, but of the Barcelona proletariat and the causes for the failure of the constitutional monarchy. She makes a strong case for 1909, the year of the Tragic Week, being the critical turning point. Dillwyn F. Ratcliffe, Prelude to Franco: Political Aspects of the Dictatorship of General Miguel Primo de Rivera (New York: Las Americas Pub. Co., 1957), is brief and fully as limited as the subtitle suggests. Martinez Cuadrado, Elecciones y partidos políticos (see above) is valuable for this period.

[298] Second Republic and Civil War

During and shortly after the Civil War a flood of books, pamphlets, and articles appeared on the Republic and the war in all Western languages. After a lull, writing on these topics has revived in the past decade. Much of this work deals with the Republican side of the Civil War, because its internal struggles and foreign relations roused strong passions at the time and have since become the object of bitter and romantic memories. The sober historian must recognize, however, that since the Republicans lost the war, unraveling the intricacies of their wartime history contributes relatively little to our understanding of contemporary Spain. I shall point out only the best-known studies, and the interested reader can turn to them for detailed bibliographies.

It is hard for historians to be impartial on the period and their critics are even less so. Thus there is no agreement on the relative value of the histories of the period. To my mind ** *Gabriel Jackson, The Spanish Republic and the Civil War, 1931-1939 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1965), is the best general account. It has the advantage of being written by a trained historian who had worked on earlier periods of Spanish history before turning to the 1930's. While partial to the Republicans, he weighs his evidence and judgments carefully. It has little on the evolution of the Nationalist side, and its lengthy bibliography is skimpy on critical comments. ** Stanley G. Payne, Falange: a History of Spanish Fascism (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1961), also by a historian, though its topic is limited, provides the other side of the picture missing in Jackson. It goes back to the origins of the Falange under the Republic. A more recent book of Payne, The Spanish Revolution (New York: Norton, 1970) describes the movements of the left from the end of the nineteenth century to 1939, with emphasis on the 1930's. He is concerned with the inner working of the parties and the roles of individual leaders, being particularly critical of Azana, who he believes appeased the revolutionary left. Edward E. Malefakis, Agrarian Reform and Peasant Revolution in Spain, Origins of the Civil War (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1970) is a work of major importance for understanding contemporary Spain. After studying the historic roots of the agrarian problem and the structure of the regions of latifundia, Malefakis weaves together the conflicts in the Cortes with the growing militancy of the rural unions to show the corrosive effect of the agrarian issue on the Republic. ** *Hugh Thomas, The Spanish Civil War (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1961) is more specifically on the war, with a great amount of information (some of it self-contradictory). It struggles to be impartial, but I find it marred by an insufficient knowledge of historical background and a marked lack of sympathy for Spaniards of any persuasion. Pierre Broue and Emile Temime, La Revolution et la Guerre d'Espagne (Paris: Editions de Minuit, 1961) [299] deals more analytically with developments on both sides of the war than any of the above studies. As the title indicates, the authors believe the Civil War represented the crushing of a proletarian revolution, with which they sympathize. New articles by some of the best historians of the period are presented in Raymond Carr (ed.), The Republic and the Civil War in Spain (London: Macmillan, 1971). The collection stresses political and military history, but Hugh Thomas describes agrarian collectives during the war. A frequent theme is that the right and Franco were more firmly based in Spain than republican sympathizers have said.

Two of the best works written during and after the war have already been cited: Brenan, Spanish Labyrinth and Madariaga, Spain. One should add the account of a leading English hispanist: E. Allison Peers, The Spanish Tragedy, 1930-1937: Dictatorship, Republic, Chaos, Rebellion, War (London: Methuen & Co., Ltd., 1936, revised 1937), moderately favorable to the Nationalists. Frank E. Manuel, who is far better known as an intellectual historian of Europe, wrote The Politics of Modern Spain (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1938). It covers the period from the First World War to the Civil War and still deserves reading for its insights into Spanish politics.

There were many eye-witness accounts of the war; the following three are especially noteworthy. tFranz Borkenau, The Spanish Cockpit (London, 1937, reprinted Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1963) is by an Austrian sociologist who traveled widely in Republican Spain during the first year of the war. His introductory historical sketch sets down much of the analytic pattern later followed by Brenan. Elliot Paul, an American correspondent, wrote The Life and Death of a Spanish Town (New York: Modern Library, 1937) a moving portrayal of the life on the Mediterranean island of Ibiza before the war and of the leftist "revolution" between the outbreak of the war and the Italian occupation of the island. tGeorge Orwell, Homage to Catalonia (London: Seeker and Warburg, 1938), is this novelist's account of his participation in the POUM militia on the Aragon front and in the May 1937 uprising in Barcelona. He combines memoir with analysis and makes reality read like a macabre novel. I know of no account of the Nationalist side to rank with these.

Under Franco

There has as yet been little serious historical work on the Franco regime. One must rely mostly on the accounts of contemporary observers, frequently newspaper correspondents, and a few biographers of Franco. Almost all such books cover the Civil War rapidly and then emphasize Franco's international relations and the institutions and political groupings in Spain that support or oppose him. Despite the inevitable chapter on economics, these works tend to ignore the situation of the people and the changes going on in society.

[300] Several American scholars have studied the nature of the regime. The Council on Foreign Relations commissioned Arthur P. Whitaker, a noted historian of Spain and Latin America, to review Spain's international and military position, but his book, ** * Spain and the Defense of the West (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1961), also provides a perceptive look at domestic evolution during the first two decades of Franco's rule. The sociologist Juan J. Linz has used Spain as his prime example for a theoretical study of contemporary authoritarianism: "An Authoritarian Regime: the Case of Spain," in Erik Allardt and Yrjö Littunen, eds., Cleavages, Ideologies and Party Systems (Transactions of the Westermarck Society, Vol. 10, Helsinki: Academic Bookstore, 1964), pp. 291-341. In collaboration with Amando de Miguel, Linz has analyzed social structure and social mobility under Franco: "Within Nation Differences and Comparisons: the Eight Spains," in Richard L. Merritt and Stein Rokkan, eds., Comparing Nations (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1966), pp. 267-319. Charles W. Anderson, The Political Economy of Modern Spain: Policy Making in an Authoritarian System (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1970) examines economic planning in the fifties and sixties and finds it less different from that of Western democracies than one might expect. ** *Stanley G. Payne has written a brief history, Franco Spain (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1967), but it is uneven and not up to his other books, which deserve reading on this as on earlier periods (see above). Entirely different in approach and objective is Gabriel Jackson's fascinating autobiographical account of writing the history of the Republic and Civil War: Historian's Quest (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1969). It provides a unique picture of the atmosphere in Spain in 1960 and the persistent political divisions inherited from the past.

There are two recent carefully prepared biographies of Franco, both by sympathetic Englishmen: George Hills, Franco, the Man and the Nation (London: Hale 1967), and Brian Crozier, Franco (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1967). Both men interviewed Franco and had access to government sources. They concentrate on his military activities before 1939 and his diplomatic relations thereafter, and they have little on internal developments except at the level of ministerial intrigue.

Works of an earlier date can still be read with interest and profit. During the Second World War E. Allison Peers published Spain in Eclipse, 1937-1943 (London: Methuen & Company, Ltd., 1943) as a sequel to his Spanish Tragedy. Besides describing the end of the war and Franco's diplomacy, it shows how his regime took shape. Peers visited Spain in 1939 and gives an eyewitness account of the immediate postwar days, relatively favorable to Franco. Although Gerald Brenan's The Face of Spain (London: Turnstile Press, 1950) gives a gloomy picture, nothing on this period can equal it for sheer joy of reading. In recounts his impressions on returning to Spain in 1949 for the first time since the war. His tale of searching for the burial place of Garcia Lorca has a classic quality (it is included in McGann, Portrait of [301] Spain; above). The second half of Richard Pattee, This is Spain (Milwaukee: Bruce, 1951) provides a fund of information on the structure of the state and domestic conditions in the 1940's. The author, an American Catholic, wrote in defense of Franco, whose government was currently boycotted. A more recent book, this one critical, is ** Elena de la Souchere, An Explanation of Spain, trans. from the French by E. R. Levieux (New York, Random House, Inc., 1964), an unusual book in that it deals at length with the institutions and the conditions of the people.

Three correspondents of The New York Times have published books on their observations while assigned to Spain. Thomas J. Hamilton wrote Appeasement's Child, the Franco Regime in Spain (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1943). As the title suggests, Franco was for Hamilton still the tool of Hitler and Mussolini, but his direct picture of Spain after the Civil War conveys a graphic sense of those days. Herbert L. Matthews was in Spain during the Civil War and at various times thereafter before writing his The Yoke and the Arrows, a Report on Spain (New York: George Braziller, Inc., 1957, revised 1961). The account is chatty and readable but not profound or incisive. Matthews was highly opposed to Franco, whom he made out as all powerful within Spain. He grudgingly recognizes the social advances being made, but in a strange way he fails to appreciate the potential of Spaniards as a people. Benjamin Welles covered Spain in the early sixties. His Spain, the Gentle Anarchy (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1965) is a balanced account, well disposed but critical. Unfortunately Welles' interest was caught by the personalities heading the government and the opposition, and he gives little impression of having left Madrid except to interview dignitaries.

Two collections of writings about contemporary Spain came out in 1961. The Atlantic Monthly, January 1961, has a supplement on "Spain Today" (pp. 74-134) which covers politics, art, and literature, with articles by leading Spanish intellectuals and selections from recent writers. More important is the volume of articles by Spaniards and foreigners about Spain's recent cultural life, with translations from the best poets and authors and reproductions of paintings and sculpture, edited by Ramon Martinez-Lopez: Image of Spain (a special issue of The Texas Quarterly, Austin, 1961). Several selections from it have been noted above.

Literature and Art

Since the study of Spanish literature is more developed among English and American scholars than the study of Spanish history, it would be out of place to offer extensive suggestions in this field. The following works can provide an introduction to the subject and to Spanish art as well. ** *Gerald Brenan, The Literature of the Spanish People: from Roman Times to the Present Day (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1951) is especially helpful to the novice because it comes at the literature fresh [302] from the point of view of the nonspecialist. Nicholson B. Adams, The Heritage of Spain: an Introduction to Spanish Civilization (rev. ed., New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Inc., 1959) is a survey of Spanish history, literature, and art, and has adequate sections on arts and letters in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. In the same style but older is E. Allison Peers, ed., Spain, a Companion to Spanish Studies (5th ed., London: Methuen & Co. Ltd., 1956). It is sketchy on recent times, but its chapters are written by specialists. The best accounts of literature and art since the Civil War are in The Atlantic Monthly, January 1961, and Image of Spain (both listed above). They also have articles on Unamuno, Ortega y Gasset, Picasso, and others who flourished before the war. I have discussed the attitude of the Generation of 1898 toward their national history in "The Twentieth Century Spaniard Views the Spanish Enlightenment," Hispania, XLV (1962), 183-93.

The standard Spanish works on literature are Angel Valbuena Prat, Historia de la literature española (3 vols., Barcelona: G. Gili, 1960-62) for the full extent of the subject, and *Gonzalo Torrente Ballester, Panorama de la literatura española contemporanea (Madrid: Ediciones Gua-darrama, 1965) on the last hundred years. Both are more suitable for reference than for extended reading.

Contemporary Society

The conclusion has shown the importance of studies of social anthropologists for understanding the nature of Spanish society. The most readable and most informative work is *J. A. Pitt-Rivers, The People of the Sierra (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1961) discussed above pp. 268-70). *Michael Kenny, A Spanish Tapestry, Town and Country in Castile (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1962), contrasts life in a pueblo in Soria (Old Castile) with that of a parish of Madrid; while Susan Tax Freeman, in Neighbors the Social Contract in a Castilian Hamlet (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970), provides a sensitive examination of an aldea in the high country between New Castile and Aragon. Carmelo Lison-Tolosana, Belmonte de los Caballeros, a Sociological Study of a Spanish Town (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1966) is written by a Spaniard about a town in Aragon on the main Madrid-Barcelona highway. Less static than any of the above, it discusses both the historical past and the changes going on at the present time. Two valuable short studies are included in J. G. Peristiany, ed., Honour and Shame: the Values of Mediterranean Society (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966). Julian Pitt-Rivers' "Honour and Social Status" (pp. 19-77) deals with all levels of Andalusian society, and Julio Caro Baroja, "Honour and Shame: a Historical Account of Several Conflicts" (pp. 79-137) studies the evolution of the concept of honor among the top sectors of Spanish society since the Middle Ages.