[257] This essay is intended to serve as a guide to further reading in the major topics examined in this study. Listed are works of a general nature, many of which contain detailed bibliographies. Complete references to the manuscript and printed materials utilized in this study may be found in the notes.

The best introduction to the Habsburg period in Spain remains John H. Elliott, Imperial Spain (New York, 1963), a work that may be supplemented by John Lynch, Spain under the Habsburgs, 2 vols. (New York, 1963-69), and Antonio Domínguez Ortiz, The Golden Age of Spain, 1516-1659 (London, 1971). For the much neglected reign of Charles II, see Henry Kamen, The Reign of Charles II of Spain (London, 1980). Recent scholarship in the economic and social history of the period is reflected in Valentin Vázquez de Prada, Historia económica y social de España, vol. 3: Los siglos XVI y XVII (Madrid, 1979), and an interesting, often provocative account of Spanish mentalités is provided Bartolomé Bennassar, The Spanish Character (Berkeley, 1979). For medieval background to the Habsburg period, see Angus Mackay, [258] Spain in the Middle Ages (London, 1977), and J. N. Hillgarth, The Spanish Kingdoms, 1250-1516, 2 vols. (Oxford, 1976-78).
 

Castilian law of the early modern period is best approached through the study of Castilian law in the Middle Ages. A good introduction is E. N. van Kieffans, Hispanic Law until the End of the Middle Ages (Edinburgh, 1968). Also essential are the relevant portions of the many existing introductory accounts of the history of Spanish law. See especially Alonso García Gallo, Manual de historia de derecho español (Madrid, 1971); Rafael Gilbert Sánchez de la Vega, Historia general del derecho español (Madrid, 1974); Jesús Lalinde Abadía, Derecho histórico español (Barcelona, 1974); and the older but still useful Juan Sempere y Guarinos, Historia del derecho español (Lima, 1847).

Close study of the great collections of royal law compiled during the course of the Middle Ages is also essential for an understanding of law in the Habsburg era. Fundamental in this respect are the Fuero Juzgo, Fuero Real, Siete Partidas, Fuero Viejo, Ordenamiento de Alcalá de Henares, Leyes de Estilo, and the Ordenanzas Reales de Castilla. Printed editions of these compilations have appeared regularly since the late fifteenth century, but they have been conveniently published together in Los códigos españoles concordados y anotados, 12 vols. (Madrid, 1872-84). This invaluable work also contains an edition of the Laws of Toro (1505), but curiously provides only a poorly edited version of the (Nueva) Recopilación de todas las leyes de estos reinos, 2 vols. (Alcalá de Henares, 1569). On the other hand, the complete text of the Novísima recopilación de las leyes de España, 6 vols. (Madrid, 1805-7), which includes many of the laws contained in the earlier recopilación, is provided. Not included is the Libro de las Bulas y Pragmáticas (1503), although this collection, important for the legal history of the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, is now available in a recent (Madrid, 1976) facsimile edition.

A major flaw in each of these collections is that they failed to include all of the cédulas, edictos, pragmáticas, and other laws issued [259] by the crown. The Nueva Recopilación of 1569, for example, was notoriously incomplete, and even the Cuadernos de leyes añadidas, published repeatedly between 1581 and 1620, were not comprehensive. After 1620, moreover, even these cuadernos failed to appear, making it almost impossible to keep track of new legislation. Some help is provided by Faustino Gil Ayuso, Noticia bibliográfica de textos y disposiciones legales de los reinos de Castilla impresos en los siglos XVI y XVII (Madrid, 1935), but an authoritative edition of the royal cédulas and pragmáticas issued by the Habsburgs is still lacking.

The municipal law of the Habsburg era is also best approached from the perspective of the Middle Ages. By the sixteenth century, the fueros that governed Castile's cities in the early Middle Ages suffered as a result of the growing influence of royal law, but they still managed to retain much of their vitality, particularly in the realm of inheritance and family law. In the mid-nineteenth century a collection that aimed at printing these fueros in their entirety was envisioned (see Tomás Muñoz y Romero, Colección de fueros municipales [Madrid, 1847]), but the project was never completed. Printed versions of the municipal fueros, therefore, remain scattered and are often difficult to locate, although some have appeared in various volumes of the Anuario de historia de derecho español. For a recent bibliography see F. de Arvizu, "Les fors espagnols au moyen age: Problémes et bibliographie," Revue historique de droit française et étranger 57 (July-Sept. 1979): 375-88.

Equally difficult to locate are published editions of the ordenanzas that governed Castile's cities. Many of these have not been reprinted since the seventeenth century. Those I found particularly useful for the purpose of the study were the Recopilación de los ordenamientos de Sevilla (Seville, 1632).

There is, unfortunately, no complete guide to published work dealing with the law of the Habsburg period although the bibliographies included in the aforementioned surveys by García Gallo, Gilbert, and Lalinde Abadía provide a good beginning. Francisco Tomás y Valiente, El derecho penal de la monarquía absoluta (Madrid, 1969), is an excellent study of criminal law during this epoch, but nothing comparable exists for civil law. Bartolomé Clavero, Mayorazgo, propiedad feudal en Castilla (1369-1836) (Madrid, 1974), examines the Castlian law of primogeniture, but a general history of inheritance laws and customs has yet to be written. Spanish mercantile law, on the other [260] hand, may be approached through Enrique Cacto Fernández, Historia de In jurisdicción mercantil en España (Seville, 1971).

Also essential for the study of Castilian law in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries are the works of contemporary jurists. Crucial in this respect is Hugo de Celso, Leyes de todos los reynos de Castilla (1st ed., Valladolid, 1538); Alfonso de Villadiego, Instrucción política y práctica judicial (Valladolid, 1612); and the invaluable Juan de Hevia Bolaños, Curia philipica (1st ed., Lima, 1602). For the practice of ecclesiastical courts, see Gonzalo Suárez de Paz, Praxis eclesiastica et secularis (Salmanticae, 1583), and Francisco Ortiz de Salcedo, Curia eclesiástica (Madrid, 1616).
 

Castilian jurisprudence of the sixteenth century was centered principally in the law faculties of the University of Salamanca, home of Francisco de Vitoria, Domingo de Soto, Alonso de Azevedo, Diego de Covarrubias y Leyva, and a number of other important scholars. In recent years, thanks to new editions and translations of their writings, the contributions of the Salamancan school to the revival of Thomism in the sixteenth century as well as the legal and political thought of the Renaissance have attracted growing scholarly interest. In English, this is reflected in Bernice Hamilton, Political Thought in Sixteenth-Century Spain (London, 1963), and, especially J. A. Fernández-Santamaria, The State, War, and Peace: Political Thought in the Renaissance, 1516-1559 (Cambridge, 1977), which includes a full bibliography. See also Quentin Skinner, The Foundation of Modern Political Thought (Cambridge, 1978), esp. vol. 2, chap. 5.

Apart from the principal members of the Salamancan school, however, the scholarly contributions of Castilian jurists of the Golden Age have long been neglected. Little is known, for example, about the life and work of Hugo de Celso, Miguel de Cifuentes, Francisco de Pradilla Barnuevo, Gonzalo Suárez de Paz, Alfonso de Villadiego, and Juan Yañez Parladorii, none of whom figure in Jurisconsultos españoles, ed. Real Academia de Jurisprudencia y Legislación (Madrid, 1911), [261] a volume desperately in need of revision. Furthermore, many biographies of Castilian jurists, such as Fermin Caballero, Noticias de la vida, cargos, y escritos del doctor don Alonso Díaz de Montalvo (Madrid, 1863), or Eloy Bullón y Fernández, El Doctor Palacios Rubios y sus obras (Madrid, 1927), are long out of date. Better served is Antonio Agustín, subject of Francisco Zulueta, Don Antonio Agustín, (Glasgow, 1939). Other biographical studies of Castilian jurists include José Martínez Cardos, Gregorio López, Consejero de Indias, Glosador de las Partidas, 1496-1560 (Madrid, 1960); Guillermo Lohmann Villena, "En torno de Juan de Hevia Bolaños," AHDE 31 (1961); Alfonso Maria Guilarte, "Algunas observaciones acerca del Doctor Espinsa y su obra," AHDE 16 (1945), and José Antonio Escudero, "Francisco de Espinosa: Observacionus sobre las leyes de España," AHDE 41 (1971). On the whole, however, considerable work on the jurists of this period remains to be done.

Equally disappointing is our knowledge of the legal curriculum at Castile's universities. Luciano Pereña Vicente, La universidad de Salamanca, forja del pensamiento político español del siglo XVI (Salamanca, 1954), says very little about teaching at the university, and the same may be said of my Students and Society in Early Modern Spain (Baltimore, 1974), which adopted a sociological approach to the history of Castile's universities. The essay by Demeterio Eparragurre, "Quelques aspects de l'enseignement dans les universités espagnoles a l'époque de las renaissance," in Pedagogues et Juristes, Congrés du centre d'études superieures de la Renaissance de Tours: eté 1960 (Paris, 1963), offers a glimpse of the legal curriculum in the sixteenth century, but little more. It is still necessary, therefore, to refer to Francisco Bermúdez Pedraza, Arte legal para estudiar la jurisprudencia (Salamanca, 1612), for an introduction into the way law at the universities was studied and taught. Possible sources for research into the legal curriculum include student diaries. One of these, kept by the Florentine student Girolamo de Sommaia between 1603 and 1607, has recently been published as the Diario de un estudiante de Salamanca, ed. George Haley (Salamanca, 1977). Another, still unedited, is that of Antonio Vidal, who was also a student at Salamanca in the early seventeenth century. See BNM: 6465. For the way law was taught in the eighteenth century, see Mariano Peset Reig, "Derecho romano y derecho real en las universidades del siglo XVIII," AHDE 45 (1975).
 

[262] As noted in chapter 2 of this study, published materials on the history of the lawyers in Castile are extremely sparse. No general history of the legal profession exists, and biographical studies of practicing lawyers, as distinguished from judges and jurists, have yet to appear. Literature relating to the history of advocates, for example, is limited primarily to institutional histories of various colegios de abogados, among them, Pedro Barbadillo Delgado, Historia del ilustre colegio de abogados de Madrid, 3 vols. (Madrid, 1956); Maximiano García Venero, Origenes y vida del ilustre colegio de abogados de Madrid (Madrid, 1971); and F. García Marroquín, Reseña histórica del ilustre colegio de abogados de Valladolid (Valladolid, 1881). Works dealing with the history of procuradores and solicitadores is limited to the brief pamphlet, Los procuradores de los tribunales (Madrid, 1963). To write the portions of this book that dealt with the history of lawyers in Castile, I therefore found it necessary to depend almost exclusively upon manuscript materials, literary works, and other contemporary sources, references to which may be found in chapter 2 and in my article, "Lawyers and Litigation in Castile, 1500-1750," in Wilfrid Prest, ed., Lawyers in Early Modern Europe and America (London, 1980). For lawyers in the eighteenth century, see José Covarrubias, Discurso sobre el estado actual en los tribunales de las nación (Madrid, 1789), and for those in the Indies see Javier Malagón Barcelo, "La mala fama de los abogados en Indias," in his Historía menor (Mexico, 1976).
 

The best general introduction to legal institutions of the Habsburg era is still M. J. Gounon-Loubens, Essais sur l'administration de la Castile au XVI^e siécle (Paris, 1860), and Manuel Danvila y Collado, El poder civil en España, [263] 7 vols. (Madrid, 1885-96). More recent studies include Juan Beneyto Pérez, Historia de la administración española (Madrid, 1958), and J. M. Batista y Roca's excellent introduction to Helmut Koenigsberger, The Government of Sicily under Philip II of Spain (London, 1951; republished as The Practice of Empire, Ithaca, 1969). The medieval origins of these institutions may be approached through Miguel Angel Pérez de la Canal, "La justicia de la corte en Castilla durante los siglos XIII al XV," in Historia instituciones documentos, 2 (Seville, 1975), and Gustavo Villapalos, Los recursos contra actos de gobierno en la baja edad media (Madrid, 1971), which includes an excellent bibliography of law and legal institutions during the Middle Ages.

Studies of the various segments of Castile's legal system in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries are numerous, although they are limited primarily to royal tribunals. The one exception is the Inquisition, subject of a vast and rapidly growing literature. For a recent survey incorporating some of the latest scholarship on the Holy Office, see Bartolomé Bennassar, L'Inquisition espagnole (Paris, 1979).

In comparison with the Inquisition, scholarship on royal courts and tribunals has lagged behind. Studies of the corregidor, for example, are limited to Benjamin González Alonso, El corregidor castellano (1348-1808) (Madrid, 1970), Fernando Albi, El corregidor en el municipio español baso la monarquía absoluta (Madrid, 1943), and Richard S. Chamberlain, "The Corregidor in Castille in the 16th Century and the Residencia as applied to the Corregidor," Hispanic-American Historical Review 23 (1943), each of which is overwhelmingly institutional in focus. A promising departure from this traditional approach is offered by Antonio Domínguez Ortiz, Alteraciones andaluzas (Madrid, 1973), in which the actual performance of corregidores during the Andalusian bread riots of 1651-52 is examined, but much more along these lines remains to be done. An essential starting point for any study of the corregidor remains Jerónimo Castillo de Bobadilla, Política para corregidores, 2 vols. (Madrid, 1597), recently available in a fascimile edition. Castillo de Bobadilla wrote this important "how-to" book when he was a corregidor himself, and it is a gold mine of information about municipal government in Castile. For a study of the author, see Francisco Tomás y Valiente, "Castillo de Bobadilla (c.1547-c.1605), semblanza personal y professional de un juez del antiguo régimen," AHDE 45 (1975).

[264] As in the case of the corregidor, studies of the crown's higher tribunals -- the audiencias and chancillerias -- are relatively few. For Castile, such works include Francisco de Mendízabal, "Investigaciones acerca del origen, historia, y organización dey la real chancillería de Valladolid. Su jurisdicción y competencia," RABM 31-32 (1914); Nicolás Tenorio, Noticia histórica de la real audiencia de Sevilla (Seville, 1924); Leopoldo de la Rosa Olivera, "La Real audiencia de las Canarias: Notas para su historia," Anuario de estudios atlánticos 3 (1957); and my own "Pleitos y poder real: La chancillería de Valladolid, 1500-1700," Cuadernos de investigación histórica (Madrid) 2 (1978), which attempts to set the chancillería's history within the context of changing patterns of litigation. Much about the chancillería of Valladolid in the sixteenth century can also be learned from Bartolomé Bennassar, Valladolid au siécle d'or (Paris, 1967). For audiencias in the New World, see John H. Parry, The Audiencia of New Galicia in the Sixteenth Century (Cambridge, 1938), John L. Phelan, The Kingdom of Quito in the Seventeenth Century (Madison, 1967), and for the eighteenth century, Mark A. Burkholder, From Impotence to Authority: The Spanish Crown and the American Audiencias, 1687-1808 (Columbia, Mo., 1977).

As for the king's councils, see Joaquín José Salcedo Izu, El consejo real de Navarra en el siglo XVI (Pamplona, 1964), and Ernesto Schaefer, El consejo real y suprema de las Indias, 2 vols. (Seville, 1935-37). Neither of these studies, however, reveals much about these councils as courts of law. The same is true of Janine Fayard, Les membres du conseil de Castille a l'époque moderne (1621-1746) (Geneva, 1979), which is a detailed prosopography of the letrados who served on this important council.

As for biographies of individual magistrates, these are limited to the previously noted studies of the careers of Alfonso Díaz de Montalvo, Dr. Palacios Rubios, and Gregorio López Tovar, to which may be added Carlos Lécea y García, Lic. Sebastián de Peralta (Segovia, 1893), a fascinating portrait of a Segovian letrado who eventually became an oidor in Valladolid. Diego de Riaño y Gamboa, fiscal, royal councillor, and president of Castile, is the subject of Ismael García Ramila, Diego de Riaño y Gamboa (Burgos, 1958), a rather sketchy account of this important seventeenth-century figure, and Léon de Corral, Don Diego Corral y Arrellano y los Corrales de Valladolid (Madrid, 1904), is a study of a royal councillor immortalized in a portrait by don Diego Velázquez y [265] Silva which hangs in the Prado Museum. The only autobiography of a magistrate that I know of is that of Lic. Gregorio Tovar y Pizarro, BNM: 19344, excerpts of which appear in the article "Un jurisconsulto del siglo XVI pintado por sí mismo," RABM 18 (1903).

Literature on these subjects in Castilian history is slim. The official cost of a lawsuit is the subject of Jesús Lalinde Abadía, "Los gastos del proceso en el derecho histórico español," AHDE 34 (1964), and the history of one important case has been mapped out in John B. Owens, "Despotism, Absolutism, and the Law in Renaissance Spain: Toledo versus the Counts of Belalcázar, 1445-1574," Ph.D. dissertation, University of Wisconsin, 1972. There is also Julián Gallego, El pintor de artesano a artista (Granada, 1976), who examines the lawsuits of El Greco and other artists as a means of following artists' quest for gentility in the seventeenth century. Other than these studies, however, what I learned about lawsuits and litigation in Castile was gathered from a wide variety of sources, manuscript and printed, references to which may be found in the notes. I also benefited from studies of litigation in other countries. Those which I found particularly useful include Lloyd Fallers, Law without Precedent (Chicago, 1969); Leopold Pospisil, The Anthropology of Law, A Comparative Theory (New York, 1971); and W. Wilcox, "Lawyers and Litigants in Stuart England," Cornell Law Quarterly 24 (1938-39). See also André-Philippe Katz, "Lawsuits and Litigants in Tours: The Culture of Litigation in the Ancien Régime," Ph.D. dissertation, Johns Hopkins University, 1981. Finally, Juan José Toharia, Cambio social y vida judicial en España (Madrid, 1974), drew my attention to recurring patterns of litigation in Spain itself.