[262] I. MANUSCRIPTS

1. Municipal and Provincial Archives
I explored these collections with an eye toward materials concerning primary and secondary schools. These documents, where they exist, are generally found in the section Instrucción Pública in those archives which are catalogued, and even then these listings are frequently incomplete. The only general guide to these local collections is L. Sanchéz Belda, Bibliografía de archivos españoles y de archivística (Madrid, 1963). The local archives which I found to be particularly helpful for this study were those in Madrid, Córdoba, Cuenca, Granada, Toledo, and Seville.

My intentions were the same when I visited a number of provincial archives. These collections are located in the capital of every Spanish province. In some cases they are housed along with the municipal archives but contain materials from towns and villages over which the provincial capital had jurisdiction. In recent years modernization of the storage facilities for these archives have begun -- the archives in Toledo, for example, are superbly housed -- and card catalogues are being brought up to date, but much work remains to be done. Like Spain's municipal archives, these provincial collections remain largely uncharted and unknown, but in addition to local administrative, economic, and legal documents, they frequently contain long series of local padrones or tax lists, superb source material for the social and demographic history of Spain.

2. Archives of Churches and Cathedrals
I looked into a number of parish archives in the hope of finding registers of baptisms and marriages which had been signed or rubricked by the interested parties. Unfortunately, in most of Spain, registers of this nature are signed only by the priest; therefore, the search was essentially fruitless. One should remember, however, that unlike France, where registers of vital statistics have been moved into the Archives Départmentales, parish churches in Spain hold onto their own, a situation which makes access to these documents difficult, since many priests are not accustomed to outside researchers.

[263] As for the archives of Spain's cathedrals, I explored a number of these in order to obtain information regarding the educational backgrounds of the upper clergy. Such material is not always available, but most cathedrals keep biographical records (sometimes limited to proofs of Christian lineage or patents of appointment) of their chapter members. Access to these papers, however, is sometimes difficult, hours are sporadic and investigators are advised to arrange appointments with the cathedral archivist in advance, particularly in summer when they are often away. With a few notable exceptions, Granada and Salamanca for instance, published catalogues of these collections are few.

3. University Archives
These collections are much more diverse than their name implies, since they contain not only university records but also manuscripts and rare books on a wide range of subjects from the collections of individual professors, colleges, etc. The archivo and biblioteca of the University of Salamanca and the Biblioteca Santa Cruz (Valladolid) are especially rich in this regard. Both are well-catalogued.

As for documentation concerning the universities themselves, the best collection is that for the old University of Alcalá de Henares, now housed in the Archivo Histórico Nacional: Sección de Universidades, which also contains records of the University of Sigüenza, suppressed in 1807. This material has been catalogued in C. Gutiérrrez, La Sección de Universidades del Archivo Histórico Nacional (Madrid, 1952). There are additional materials for Alcalá de Henares, including some important registers dating from the early sixteenth century, in the Archivo de la Universidad Central de Madrid. This archive, poorly catalogued and maintained, also contains matriculation and graduation registers for the University of Madrid in the nineteenth century as well as papers concerning Madrid's Seminario de Nobles and numerous dossiers dealing with secondary education in nineteenth-century Spain.

The University of Salamanca's archives, housed in that university's library, are virtually complete after the mid-sixteenth century. Graduation and matriculation registers are plentiful, and the ancient Libros de Claustros which record the correspondence and deliberations of the university council exist in an almost unbroken series, extracts from which have been published in volume I of Esperabé Artega, Universidad de Salamanca. Papers for this university's colleges are also in this collection, although a number of the old religious colleges still in existence, San Esteban, for example, maintain archives of their own. Records for the University of Salamanca in the nineteenth century can be found in the archives of the university rectory, but this little collection suffers from neglect and researchers may be turned away. Anyone interested in working in the university archives [264] of Salamanca is advised to contact P. don Florencio Marcos Rodríguez, bibliotecario of the university and archivist of Salamanca's cathedral.

The archives of the other universities which survived the suppression of 1807 are generally housed in the university library and are readily accessible. Those in Santiago de Compostela and Seville are in good order and fairly complete. On the other hand, the University of Granada's archives were largely destroyed by fire and Oviedo's by Civil War bombs, but many manuscripts survive in both. In better shape are the University of Valladolid's archives, currently stored along with the Archivo Provincial in the Facultad de Filosofia y Letras of the university. Its graduation and matriculation registers and its Libros de Claustros are complete after the later sixteenth century, though materials regarding its instructors are few. The archives also contain documents proceeding from the old University of Oñate. The Biblioteca Santa Cruz contains records of the colegio mayor which gave it both its building and its name.

Records for the universities suppressed in 1807 are harder to find and to use. Toledo's papers have all but disappeared, except for a few Libros de Claustros and de Matrículas housed in that city's Archivo Provincial. What is left of Avila's archives belong to the Convento de Santo Tomás (Avila) which was once the core of this university. There are no catalogues, and the monastery is not accustomed to researchers. Equally difficult to work with are the archives of the universities of Baeza and Osuna, now housed in the Institutos de Enseñanza Secondaria into which the universities' buildings were transformed. Neither has a catalogue and both collections -- stuffed into bookshelves and thrown about on the floor -- require both muscle and patience on the researcher's part. Oñate's old Colegio de Sancti-Spiritus (at present a secondary school) keeps the small part of that university's archives which was not sent to Valladolid. Don Ignacio Zumalde, author of the Historia de Oñate, is the local resident to contact for information concerning this collection. The archives of the University of Burgo de Osma are currently housed in the seminary of that city. It has many old manuscripts, but few which relate to the university. Finally, what remains of the University of Irache's archives are part of the Archivo del Reino de Navarra, while papers for the University of Santo Tomás (Seville) have apparently been lost.

Outside the Crown of Castile, records for the universities of Gandía, Orihuela, and Valencia can be found in the library of the University of Valencia, the Archivo Municipal de Valencia, and the Archivo del Reino de Valencia. The latter also contains an important collection of papers concerning the Jesuit colleges of that kingdom. Barcelona's university archives (part of the university library), closed the two summers I visited there on account of obras (building repairs), supposedly have records of its own past as well as others for the University of Cervera and the Catalan universities which were suppressed in 1714 by order of Philip V. The [265] University of Huesca's surviving registers belong to that city's municipal archives.

Ajo, Historia de las Universidades, vol. VII, contains a listing of manuscript materials, both in Spain and abroad, which refer to these institutions. This listing, however, is frequently inaccurate and misleading, since the author commonly notes documents which no longer exist.

4. Archives of the Audiencias, National Archives, and Other Collections
I initially explored these archives to gather information about letrado officials appointed by the crown. This search led to the consultas de oficio, which provide capsule biographies of candidates for royal offices, or, when these did not exist, salary records and patents of appointment which could at least provide the names of officials and their dates in office.

Among the audiencias of the crown, the Archivo de la Chancillería de Valladolid is the most important, although it lacks modern catalogues and other guides to research. Fundamentally, it is a large collection of lawsuits and other legal transactions proceeding from Castile in areas north of the River Tagus, but its contents, invaluable for the social history of northern Spain, are little known. Its Libros de Acuerdos, registers of the chancillería's official correspondence with the crown, make note of the judges and abogados who served in this tribunal.

The Archivo de la Chancillería de Granada, housed along with the Archivo Provincial, covers the same material as that in Valladolid but for regions south of the Tagus. The collection is well-catalogued and carefully preserved, but unfortunately its Libros de Acuerdos were lost during the Spanish Civil War.

The archives of the audiencias at Seville and La Coruña have also suffered serious losses. A fire early in the twentieth century cost Seville most of its materials dating from the Habsburg epoch, while La Coruña's archives, housed in that city's Casa de Cultura, lost a large part of its sixteenth-century papers when Sir Francis Drake raided the city in 1589.

The archives of the audiencia or consejo of Navarre forms part of Pamplona's Archivo General del Reino de Navarro. For information about its holdings, see J.J. Salcedo Izu, El Consejo Real de Navarra en el Siglo XVI (Pamplona, 1964). There is also an archive for the audiencia that was located in the Canary Islands; see L. de Rosa Olivera, "La Real Audiencia de Canarias: Notas Para Su Historia," Anuario de Estudios Atlánticos 3 (1957): 91-161.

For information concerning other letrado officials of the crown, one must turn to Spain's three great national archives. The Archivo General de Indias, for example, contains consultas of the Council of Indies which deal with the appointment of audiencia officials in the New World. Legajos 741, 940, and 942 in the vast section Indiferente General are helpful in this [266] respect for the reign of Philip II, and similar materials for other reigns must surely exist. The appointment records of Castile's other councils belong to the Archivo General de Simancas and the Archivo Histórico Nacional in Madrid.

In the former, the section Estado-España, leg. 11-17 contain consultas de oficio dating from the reign of Charles V, while the Registro General de Sello includes patents of appointment for royal offices. This vast section, however, is catalogued only for the early years of the reign of the Catholic kings and is, therefore, difficult to use unless one is searching for specific patents and happens to know names and approximate dates. The section Cámara de Castilla records mercedes and appointments to capa y espada offices, but not important letrado posts. On the other hand, the small series Nóminas de Cortes provides annual lists of letrado councillors and other court officials from the late fifteenth century until the l570s, and the series Quitaciones de Corte contains individual salary records for councillors and court officials throughout the Habsburg period. Salary records can also be found in the Contaduría Mayor de Cuentas, épocas 1 and 2, while the series Dirección General de Tesoro is invaluable for the sale of offices in Castile.

With regard to materials concerning the history of schools, colleges, and universities, the archives at Simancas are relatively weak, although the section Gracia y Justicia does include some sources for the history of higher education, particularly for the eighteenth century. The series Diversos de Castilla has a few items relative to university history, while the padrones compiled at the order of Philip II provide an insight into the distribution of letrados, schoolmasters, etc. in late sixteenth-century Castile (see section Expedientes de Hacienda).

The essential guide to this archive as a whole is Angel de la Plaza Bores, Archivo General de Simancas: Guía de Investigadores (Valladolid, 1962). In addition, there are catalogues, some published, for the individual sections.

The Archivo Histórico Nacional, weighted toward the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, takes up where Simancas leaves off. Within the vast section of Consejos Suprimidos, the series Audiencias y Chancillerías contains the consultas of the Cámara de Castilla for all tribunal appoint-ments after 1588. Consultas for mercedes, church offices, and other positions can be found in the series Consultas de Gracia and Consultas de Viernes, while additional materials regarding clerical appointments in Castile are in the series Libros de Iglesia. There are no consultas de oficio for any of the major letrado councils during this period, although these might turn up once the Consejos Suprimidos section is properly arranged. Fortunately, the names of these councillors can be found in the series Libros de Plazas. This contains, in chronological order, patents of appointment for all plazas de asiento in Castile, except for places on the Council of the Military Orders and those of the inquisition. There exist, however, consultas [267] de oficio for the former (cf. AHN: Cons., leg. 51708), while Libros 246-49, 356-61, 366-408, 426-30, 489-95, 572, and 1232 of the section Inquisición list those letrados who served with the Holy Office. Also of interest for the appointment of letrado officials is the series Relaciones de Méritos of the Consejos Suprimidos section. This contains the capsule biographies which candidates for office sent to the Cámara. A catalogue of the series, arranged in alphabetical order by name, is available.

As for sources relating to the history of education in Castile, the AHN is well-stocked. The series Archivo Antiguo de Consejo of the Consejos Suprimidos section, leg. 7138, contains important source material on university administration and reform, while the series Enseñanza and Universidades de Castilla are devoted to the educational history of Castile during the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. In addition, the section Ordenes Militares offers papers concerning the history of the Colleges of the Military Orders at Alcalá de Henares and Salamanca. And for Jesuit institutions, the section Jesuitas houses most of what is left of the archives of the individual colleges and seminaries (see A. Navarro Guglieri, Documentos de la Compañía de Jesús en el Archivo Histórico Nacional [Madrid, 1962], although there are other large holdings of Jesuit papers in the Real Academia de Historia (Madrid) and in semi-private Jesuit archives in Alcalá de Henares. The latter, a little known collection which is especially rich in materials concerning the history of the Society in nineteenth-century Spain, has a typed catalogue that is stored in the Biblioteca Razón y Fe (calle Pablo Aranda 3, Madrid).

Elsewhere in Madrid, the manuscript collection of the Biblioteca Nacional is very diffuse and largely uncatalogued. Only a few modern guides have been issued and the old registers and card indices are incomplete, misleading, and frequently incorrect. Important letters and memorials are often bound indiscriminately into manuscript volumes of little general interest, but those helpful in the preparation of this work are listed in the footnotes to the text. The Real Academia de la Historia also contains a large collection of manuscripts, but here as well, adequate catalogues are few. Aside from various memorials listed in the footnotes, Ms. 9-22-3-4147, "Colegios de España y sus personas" was especially important, since it provided the names of a number of early sixteenth-century colegiales mayores which were not listed elsewhere. Another important archive in Madrid is the Instituto de Valencia de Don Juan. Largely unknown, its manuscripts, particularly abundant for the reign of Philip II, form one part of the famous Altamira Collection, of which the remainder lies in the British Museum and the Favre Collection of Geneva. This archive is difficult to work, since the hours are short (two hours daily), but its excellent catalogue, long inaccessible, is now being made available. I found Envio 90, which includes a report made by the Cardinal Espinosa on Castile's universities and their graduates, particularly helpful.

[268] Two other important manuscript collections in Castile are located in the bibliotecas of El Escorial and the Palacio Real (Madrid). The former, an incredibly rich collection of rare books, has a diverse collection of manuscripts, the contents of which are available through Julian Zarco Cuevas, Catálogo de los manuscritos castellanos de la Real Biblioteca de El Escorial (Madrid, 1924). The latter is a major source for the history of the Royal Court.

Outside Spain, the manuscript collection of the British Museum is rich in papers regarding higher education and the appointment of royal officials in Castile. Consultas for openings on the important councils in the 1580s and 1590s can be found in Add. 28, 347; 28, 349; 28, 353; 28, 358; and 28, 363. Add. 28, 351-53 contain lists of candidates for corregimientos and other offices during the 1560s and 1570s, while Eg. 439 includes a comprehensive review of higher education in Spain that was carried out in the reign of Charles III. There are also numerous isolated memorials and consultas, a few of which are referred to in the footnotes of this book. V. Beltrán de Heredia, Cartulario de la Universidad de Salamanca (Salamanca, 1971), 3: 575-622, publishes a number of these British museum manuscripts, particularly those concerning the University of Salamanca in the sixteenth century; however, Pedro Gayangos, Catalogue of the Spanish Manuscripts in the British Museum (4 vols., London, 1875-93) remains indispensable for work in this collection.

The Bibliothèque National (Paris) and the Archives des Affaires Etrangères (Paris) have important holdings relating to Spain, but little material directly concerned with the subject matter of the present volume. The Collection Eduard Favre in Geneva is essential for an understanding of the part which the royal secretary Mateo Vázquez played in the appointment of crown officials during Philip II's reign. In this regard, manuscript volumes 31 and 38 were particularly helpful. L. Micheli, Catalogue de la Collection Manuscrit de Eduard Favre (Geneva, 1914) provides an introduction to this archive's contents. And, finally, in Rome, the Archivium Historicum Romanum Iesu houses the letters and catalogues which were forwarded by Spain's Jesuit colleges to the Society's central headquarters. The collection is well-catalogued and is readily accessible to outside researchers.

II. PRINTED SOURCES

The following bibliography is intended only to serve as a guide to further reading in the major topics treated in this volume. Listed are works of a general nature, many of which contain bibliographical entries which are fairly complete and need not be duplicated here. However, full references to those works which have been cited directly in this study are presented in the footnotes of the text.

[269] 1. Education and Society in Early Modern Europe.
There is no introductory work available on this subject, although specialized studies are many. Philip Aries, Centuries of Childhood, A Social History of Family Life, trans. Robert Baldick (New York, 1962) is fundamental for any study in family life and childhood education, while a recent listing of other works on these topics is available in C. John Sommerville, "Towards a History of Childhood and Youth," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 3 (Autumn, 1972): 439-47.

The subject of literacy in history can be approached through Carlo Cipolla, Literacy and Development in the West (Baltimore, 1969). Lawrence Stone, "Literacy and Society in England, 1640-1900," Past & Present 42 (February 1969): 69-139, is much broader than its title suggests and offers what is perhaps the best conceptual framework available for studies in the history of education. See also J.R. Goody, ed., Literacy in Traditional Societies (Cambridge, 1968).

Latin or Renaissance education has been examined in many specialized articles and books, but there are few general studies of importance on this topic. Still useful is W. H. Woodward, Studies in Education during the Age of the Renaissance, 1400-1600 (Cambridge, 1906) (this has been re-printed by Columbia University Teachers' College Press, New York, 1967, with an excellent introduction by Lawrence Stone). However, E. Garin, L'Educazione in Europa, 1400-1600 (Ban, 1957) (also available in French) remains the best available work on the subject. Latin pedagogy is another subject about which much has been written, but Georges Snyders, La Pedagogie en France aux XVIIe et XVIIIe Siècles (Paris, 1965) stands out both for its quality and breadth. Its equivalent for England, though in a somewhat earlier period, is Joan Simon, Education and Society in Tudor England (Cambridge, 1959), and this can be supplemented by Kenneth Charlton, Education in Renaissance England (London, 1965). The best gen-eral study of the education of the aristocracy in Europe remains J. H. Hexter, "The Education of the Aristocracy in the Renaissance," in Reappraisals in History (London, 1961), although this has been updated for England by Lawrence Stone, Crisis of the Aristocracy, 1558-1641 (Oxford, 1965).

The universities of early modern Europe are unfortunate in that they have never merited a study comparable to H. Rashdall, The Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages, ed. by F.M. Powicke and A.B. Emden (3 vols., Oxford, 1936). The only general survey, and one that is less than satisfactory, is S. D'Irsay, Histoire des Universités Francaises et Etrangères (2 vols., Paris, 1933). More specialized but dealing with universities in much of Europe are the articles published in two recent collective volumes: Les Universités Européenes du XIVe au XVIlle Siècles, Aspects et Problems (Institut D'Histoire de la Faculté des Lettres de Genéve, vol. 4, Genéve, 1967) and The University in Society, ed. Lawrence Stone [270] (2 vols. Princeton, 1974). English higher education in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries has been the subject of a number of good recent studies, among them Lawrence Stone, "The Educational Revolution in England 1560 to 1640," Past & Present 28 (July 1964); Hugh Kearney, Scholars and Gentlemen; Universities and Society in Pre-Industrial Britain 1500-1700 (London, 1970); and Wilfrid R. Prest, The Inns of Court under Elizabeth I and the Early Stuarts, 1590-1640 (London, 1972). The only works of a general nature available in English for German universities are F. Paulsen, German Universities and University Study (Leipzig, 1902) and J. Conrad, The German Universities for the Last Fifty Years (Glasgow, 1885). Nothing on this scale exists either for Italy or France, although studies of individual colleges and universities are numerous.

2. Early Modern Spain: General
J.H. Elliott, Imperial Spain (London, 1963) and John Lynch, Spain Under the Habsburgs (2 vols., Oxford, 1964-69) remain the best introductory works in English for early modern Spain, although they can be supplemented by Antonio Domínguez Ortiz, Spain in the Golden Age 1502-1659 (New York, 1971). Spanish economic and social history in this period may be approached through the Historia Económica y Social de España y America, ed. J. Vicens Vives, (5 vols., Barcelona, 1957) and Antonio Domínguez Ortiz, La Sociedad Española en el Siglo XVII (2 vols., Madrid, 1963-70). The eighteenth century is covered in Antonio Domínguez Ortiz, La Sociedad Española en el Siglo XVIII (Madrid, 1955) and Richard Herr, The Eighteenth Century Revolution in Spain (Princeton, 1958). For additional bibliography, see B. Sánchez Alonso, Fuentes de la Historia Española e Hispanoamericana, 3rd ed. (3 vols., Madrid, 1952). Recent books and articles are listed in the periodical Indice Histórico Español (University of Barcelona).

3. Early Modern Spain: Education and Society
a) Family Life and Childhood
Except for studies based wholly upon literary sources and those dealing with individual families, this area remains totally unresearched. Even demographic studies are few; Bartolomé Bennassar, Valladolid au Siécle d'Or (Paris, 1967) is the only study, to date, which makes an attempt at "family reconstitution" in Castile. Juan Luis Morales, El Niño en la Cultura Española (4 vols., Madrid, 1960) is perhaps the best starting point for a history of children in Spain, particularly for its detailed bibliography of pediatrics.

b) Literacy and Latin
This area, too, has been poorly researched. Though a number of local studies exist, works of a general nature are very few. Lorenzo Luzuriaga, [271] Documentos Para la Historia Escolar de España (2 vols., Madrid, 1916) is a useful collection of documents on Spanish education from the Middle Ages to the nineteenth century, but offers little in the way of a narrative, while J. Raymond Perz, Secondary Education in Spain (Washington, 1934), gives only a brief historical introduction to his subject. The history of Spanish pedagogy is treated in two older but still useful works: Antonio Gil y Zarate, De la Instrucción Pública en España (Madrid, 1855) and E. García y Barbarín, Historia de la Pedagogía Española (Madrid, 1909). And an introduction to "Renaissance" education in Spain is provided in Aubrey F. G. Bell, Luís de León: A Study in the Spanish Renaissance (Oxford, 1925), a work which can be supplemented by Caro Lynn, A College Professor of the Renaissance (Chicago, 1937).

c) Universities and Colleges
There are a number of general works available on the history of higher education in early modern Spain. Alberto Jiménez, Historia de la Universidad Española (Madrid, 1971) offers an impressionistic (and undocumented) account which is not nearly so good as the classic in this field: Vicente de la Fuente, Historia de las Universidades (4 vols., Madrid, 1884- 89). This has recently been updated by G. Ajo y Sainz de Zúñiga, Historia de las Universidades Hispánicas (8 vols., Madrid, 1957-72), a massive work which continues to appear. Ajo is especially useful for the detailed bibliographices of manuscript and printed sources provided in vols. I, VII, and VIII. Bibliographies for Spain's colleges and seminaries have been published by F. Martín Hernández, "Fuentes y Bibliografía para el Estudio de los Seminarios Españoles," Salmanticensis (vol. X, 1963) and "Noticia de los Antiguous Colegios Universitarios Españoles," Salamanticensis (vol. VI, 1959). Volume I of the Bibliographie International de l'Histoire des Universités (Geneva, 1973) contains an excellent section (pp. 3-100) on Spain and Portugal prepared by Rafael Gilbert, while still another useful bibliography appears in María Soledad Rubio Sánchez, Historia del Real Colegio de Estudios Mayores de la Purísima Concepción de Cabra (Córdoba), 1679-1847 (Sevilla, 1970), App. II. Specialized studies of Spain's universities and colleges are numerous; many of these have been referred to in the footnotes of this volume.